eChapters

Introduction

Aquaculture has been recognised as an important livelihood creating employment opportunities in the remote rural villages and urban areas. Further, it makes crucial contribution to global economic security and growth and generates income both directly and indirectly through support services. Over the past six decades, the prospects of ornamental fish have been emerging as a lucrative commercial aqua-venture. The global ornamental fish trade is the fastest growing sector and a multimillion dollar business which provides avenues for overseas earnings. The developing countries play a crucial role in production of ornamental fishes as more that 60% of the production comes from the households of the developing countries (FAO, 2006). The estimated worth of international ornamental fish trade at retail price is US$ 8 billion and the entire sector including aquarium tanks, accessories, medicines, feeds, plants, etc is worth of US$ 20 billion. India’s share in global export market is negligible as it is mainly dominated by the wild caught species mainly from the northeastern states of India and Western Ghats and estimated at Rs. 5.5. crores in 2009-10 (MPEDA, 2011).

Introduction

Surging food demand and shrinking land resources to produce more from the limited natural resources like soil and water is poised to environmental degradation. Increased production must be achieved mainly by increasing crop productivity per unit area while sustaining the environment and enhanced input use efficiency. Agricultural production systems are increasingly under pressure to adapt decision-making process to be make more informed and efficient use of irrigation water, fertilizers and pesticides. Adverse effects of climate change are added challenges to agricultural productivity. Efficient crop management strategies to improve resource use efficiency and reduce crop losses are vital issues to be taken care for a sustainable sustainably enhanced production system. Genetic improvement approaches involving high throughput phenotyping and genomics-assisted breeding enhancing resource use efficiency, stress tolerance, yield has become imperative. Precise crop health monitoring is one of the keys to the modern production system. Obviously, disease forecasting and surveillance systems are in great demand to adopt precise management against the losses caused by diseases. Predicting disease risk at regional and global scales is of great interest for on-farm management and for assessment of agricultural policies and practices.

Introduction The Indian culinary world may have just recently embraced the concept of edible flowers, but they have been a part of traditional Indian cuisines since the beginning. Flowers have been used in human diets and gourmet preparations for thousands of years (Fernandes et al., 2020). However, due to increased consumer knowledge about the effects of nutrition on human health, there is a growing trend in utilizing flowers for edible purposes (Chatzopoulou et al., 2020). Edible flowers were used as a relish and flavour enhancer in many savoury and sweet meals in ancient Rome and Greece. In China’s ancient texts and classics, the words and phrases regarding edible blossoms were also recorded by Zhao et al. (2017). Edible flowers come in a wide variety of colors and cooking ways in different nations. Flowers, such as Osmanthus fragrans Lour and Flos Sophorae, have been employed as basic ingredients in a range of Chinese cuisines (Cunningham, 2015). The people of Rome used flowers in cooking. They make salads using violets and roses and sauces using lavenders. Flowers from pumpkin and squash plants have long been used as ingredients in the United States. People consume aromatic flower buds and unopened blossoms in El Salvador and Honduras. Blossoms are frequently used to garnish food at aristocratic banquets and feasts across Europe. Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) flowers are also added to beverages and salads in many parts of the world.

Introduction
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is regarded as a silent pandemic that is responsible for causing the majorityof deaths every year and has become a major healthcare challenge and a significant public health issue. It has been reported that AMR alone has caused more fatalities than road accidents and cancer. It is among the top ten global health threats and has been recognized as a part of the multisector One Health approach. It has been predicted that by the year 2050, the burden of AMR will decrease the gross domestic product (GDP) by 2 to 3.5%, causing a loss of USD100 trillion to the world, with the annual death rate reaching 10 million. India faces one of the world’s highest antimicrobial resistance (AMR) rates, driven by high antibiotic consumption in humans, widespread non-prescription use, and unregulated application in livestock, aquaculture, and agriculture. Surveillance data show alarming resistance in major pathogens E. coli and Klebsiella,which now exhibit very low susceptibility to key antibiotics such as cefotaxime, ciprofloxacin, and carbapenems. Factors exacerbating the burden include inadequate infection prevention, limited laboratory capacity, poor enforcement of regulations, environmental contamination from pharmaceutical and hospital waste, and low public awareness. The combined impact threatens public health, food safety, and the economy. In general terms, AMR is defined as the ability of the microorganisms to withstand the action of an antimicrobial agent,i.e. Antibacterial agents, antifungal agents, potentially toxic metals, and disinfectants. AMR is known to be a natural process that occurs over time due to genetic changes in the pathogens under selective pressure, where a pathogen undergoes mutations and is often linked to indiscriminate use of antimicrobial agents.
Indefinite and improper use of antimicrobial agentshas been a major factor in the emergence of AMR. AMR affects both animals and humans alike, and resistant pathogens pose a challenge in treating infections. One of the crucial factors responsible for AMR is theenvironment, which is regarded as both a vehicle for spreading AMR microbes as well is a culprit of AMR pollutants, which severely impact the ecosystems. AMR is a multifaceted problem and to control it effectively, meticulous measures have been implemented for monitoring and surveillance of AMR in clinical settings, in both human and veterinary fields. However, the environmental surveillance dealing with the environmental AMR has yet to be established. The implementation of comprehensive monitoring of AMR in environment will vastly improve our understanding of the various dissemination routes and propagation of the resistant microbes in environment and their role in spreading AMR. In this chapter, we will discuss the environmental spread of AMR, drivers of AMR in the environment, factors influencing AMR, challenges faced, measures to tackle AMR, and future trends in curbing the burden of AMR.

This chapter introduces the microbiological characteristics of eggs and egg products, beginning with the egg's natural physical and chemical defenses against microorganisms. It examines routes of contamination, spoilage microorganisms and spoilage patterns, with particular emphasis on Salmonella Enteritidis and its public-health significance. Other pathogens of concern and the distinctive microbiology of processed egg products are also considered. The chapter discusses microbiological testing, indicator organisms, contamination control and predictive microbiology, providing a foundation for designing effective safety systems throughout the egg value chain.

The present publication has highlighted the issues on different aspects of food sector expressed by very distinguished authors. The issues have been discussed and illustrated how we conceive food as an item, what and how much food is known to consumers, what are common food sources, the relationship between food and health, food and nutrition security programmes in different regions of the world and how do we perceive food and nutrition policy challenges?

Abstract

The breeding potential of Ompok bimaculatus is declining day by day due to decrease of rainfall and increase of atmospheric temperature. As a result, the population of Ompok bimaculatus is significantly reducing in the fresh water bodies of Tripura.
 
The results of reproductive biology of O. bimaculatus were based on the fish samples collected from different locations of some rivers and Hurijala wetland of Tripura. Total weight of the sampled fish varied from 22 g to 171.50 g and the females had a greater weight and length than males. Total length of the males varied from 16.50 cm to 29.50 cm, while the females ranged from 17.0 cm to 33.0 cm. Female dominance over male was observed in the species. The ratio of males to females was 1:1.58. Significant correlation exists between fish length and weight in both males (R² = 0.943) and females (R² = 0.827).

Extrusion cooking is an emerging technology having advantages of low production cost, capable of producing end products in various shapes and sizes, from a variety of food materials with easy digestibility, maintaining hygiene and high product quality and leaving no effluents or hazardous materials. Minimal energy consumption and processing costs and possibility of flavour addition are the added advantages of technology. The process/technique has the versality and ability to constituently produce a given product in continuity at a given set of pre – determined specifications. It destroys fat splitting enzymes to avoid rancidity and thus extends the shelf life of products considerably. Microorganisms present in food materials are destroyed. It can be effectively utilized to develop functional and designer foods by using several locally available under-utilized food materials. However, it leads to increased package cost as puffed or expanded food products have low bulk density. R & D studies are further needed for co – extrusion of variety of cereals with high fibre content foods and micronutrients.

Introduction

 Salinity is a form of salt that occurs naturally within soils or water. When soil

becoming salty form that is called salinization, it can be caused by mineral

weathering called as natural process but it can be caused by irrigation called

as artificial process. Saline or salty soil have a high salt content like sodium

chloride (NaCl also called table salt). Salinity is like- abiotic stress for plants

and reduced the plant growth but not for all because some of them crops are

survive in better way for growth and development such as barley, sugerbeet,

cotton and mustard etc. Basically, stress are two types-biotic and abiotic

stress. Abiotic stress are also called nonliving stress like- drought, salinity,

submergence, heat, cold and temperature that are affect to plant life cycle so

that are called as abiotic stress. Natural water and all types of soil both contain

soluble salts. Amount of salt affected to weather of soil, when excessive salt

present in soil and it adversely affects to crop growth and developments. Salt

affected soils exist under arid and semi-arid climates. Major constitutions of

soluble salt in soil are the cations and anions. Cations are containing sodium,

calcium, magnesium and anions are contains chloride, sulphate, carbonate and

bicarbonate. Saline soil have <8.5 pH, >4EC (dS/m) and <15 ESP. where EC

is eclectical conductivity that is measure of soil salinity and ESP stand for

Exchangeable sodium percentage.

18.1 Introduction

The digestive system of fish shows remarkable diversity in its morphology and function, related to both taxonomy and different feeding habits (Abdulhadi, 2005). Fish eat a wide variety of foods. Some feed on plants, others on small fish, and the remainder are omnivorous. The digestive system is drastically altered as a result of different feeding habits. In response to feeding habits, the structural plan of the buccal cavity, pharynx, and rest of the gut has changed.

Introduction

Soil has been advocated since the inception of nurseries as the storehouse of almost all the essential plant nutrients. Besides, it is treated as a living entity as it harbours diverse types of innumerable beneficial microorganisms, especially the beneficial genera of bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, algae etc. In 1885, the German botanist, Albert Frank, introduced the Greek word ‘mycorrhiza’, which literally means ‘fungus root’. These fungi form a beneficial symbiotic association with the roots of higher plants and perform the functions of root hair. This symbiotic association has been reported to promote plant growth and health by playing the role of biofertiliser and bioprotectant, respectively.

Plant disease management technique applicable these days are predominantly relies on hazardous synthetic chemicals that are efficiently deleterious to the human and environment as well. Crop loss every year due to plant pathogen and pest is ranging 30–50%. Nanotechnology, proven advantageous and can offer positive environmental impacts over these harmful chemical pesticides by reducing toxicity, increasing the feasibility of pesticides which are normally baffling in water and improving longevity. Now a days and in coming year, it becoming one of the rapidly growing, advancing and most fascinating technological sciences in many disciplines like medicine, science, technology and more importantly in agriculture, to protect crop from different kinds of pest and pathogen on which most of India’s population is completely dependent. This chapter briefly describe the introduction, role and impact of nanotech in management of plant disease. It is considered as modern technology in facing these widespread destructive challenges and causes in controlling in plant disease. In this chapter we tried to summarize the importance of nanotech in sustainable agriculture and application of various nanoparticles (NPs) in the management of plant disease. NPs can be produced by distinct practices, biological and chemical are one of them important methods. Biological method is widely and commercially used. Also, shortly describe the historical background for some NPs types. This chapter briefly focus on the synthesis of some compounds of NPs, for example silver NPs, silver and silica silver etc and their influence on plant disease also briefly describe the working principle of AgNPs against microorganism. NPs may act in accordance with chemical pesticides. Because of microscopic size, NPs have wide scope in virus control in plant. Now day’s biosensors are used for the quick and precise pathogen detection and diagnosis. Regardless of immense scope of NPs application in managing the diseases of plant, there are precise apprehensions, weakness and risk associated with the utility of NPs in agriculture. It is necessary to be figured out on primacy basis prior to trade of NPs in agriculture.

In India, the cow is a worshipped as symbol of wealth, strength, abundance, altruistic giving and full of earthly life. Cows are traditionally treated as a sacred animal. Dairy products are extensively used in India and are one of the most essential nutritional components of meals.
 
The laws governing cattle slaughter is shown in entry 15 of the State List of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution, meaning that State legislatures have exclusive powers to legislate the prevention of slaughter and preservation of cattle. Some States allow the slaughter of cattle with restrictions like a “fit-for-slaughter” certificate which may be issued depending on factors like age and gender of cattle, continued economic viability etc. Others completely ban cattle slaughter, while there is no restriction in a few states. Prohibition of cow slaughter is a Directive Principles of State Policy contained in Article 48 of the Constitution.

A microwave oven, commonly referred to as a microwave, is a kitchen appliance that heats and cooks food by exposing it to electromagnetic radiation in the microwave spectrum.

Introduction

Data Analysis is an approach to analyse data sets to summarise their main characteristics and extract valid information. The importance of hypothesis is generally recognised more in the studies which aim to make predictions about some outcome. As it is not possible to work on the whole population, each group is represented only by a sample of observations and if another sample is drawn, the numerical values would change. This variation between different samples drawn from the same population cannot be eliminated or reduced fully. One is supposed to draw inferences in the presence of the sampling f luctuations. Statistical tools and techniques are applied to check whether the observed differences are real significant differences or non- significant ones.

Introduction

Evapotranspiration is a vital process in the Earth’s water cycle, and it involves two main processes—evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation refers to the conversion of water from its liquid state to its gaseous state, which occurs primarily from the surface of bodies of water, wet vegetation, and soils. This process requires energy, which is typically provided by direct solar radiation and ambient air temperature. Transpiration, on the other hand, is the process by which plants release water vapor through small openings in their leaves called stomata. This process is essential for plant growth and function as it helps regulate the plant’s temperature and allows for nutrient uptake and water transport. Like evaporation, transpiration also requires energy, with factors like vapor pressure gradient and wind speed influencing the rate at which water is released.

To accurately measure evapotranspiration, it is necessary to consider a range of factors such as temperature, radiation, wind speed, and humidity. Plant parameters, such as the presence of a cuticle or the size and number of stomata, can also greatly influence the transpiration rate. Other factors that may impact evapotranspiration include the season, time of day, and soil properties such as water holding capacity and root depth. Evapotranspiration is a complex concept that has been studied by various scientists and organizations over time. Three main evapotranspiration (ET) concepts have been developed: Reference ET, ET under standard conditions, and ET under nonstandard conditions. The goal of determining potential or reference evapotranspiration is to exclude crop-specific variations from the evapotranspiration process. The potential evapotranspiration concept, introduced in the late 1940s and 50s by Penman, assumes constant crop conditions and defines it as “the amount of water transpired in a given time by a short green crop, completely shading the ground, of uniform height and with adequate water status in the soil profile.” ETo, which is a climatic parameter, represents the evaporating power of the atmosphere at a certain location and time of the year and is computed from weather data. It does not take into account crop characteristics or soil conditions, and the only factors affecting it are climatic parameters. The range of ETo varies from 1–2 mm/day in humid and subhumid temperate regions to 6–9 mm/day in warm arid and semi-arid temperate regions and from 2–3 in cool humid and subhumid tropics to 6–8 mm/day in warm arid and semi-arid tropics. Actual ET is the amount of water on a large area of grass that is actively growing and covering the entire soil surface it actually uses. The amount of water that is actually evacuated from a surface as a result of the processes E and T is known as ETa. Crop water needs can be calculated by the following equation.

Water scarcity and inefficient irrigation are major constraints to sustainable agricultural production. This chapter presents smart irrigation as an AI-enabled approach for optimizing water application according to crop and environmental requirements. Smart irrigation systems integrate real-time information from soil-moisture sensors, weather forecasts, remote sensing, and crop growth models. Machine learning and predictive analytics can determine appropriate irrigation timing and quantities while reducing unnecessary water use. The chapter discusses the principles, components, technologies, and applications of AI-driven irrigation systems. It also highlights their contribution to improved crop productivity, nutrient-use efficiency, soil health, and climate resilience, while considering challenges such as investment costs, data accessibility, connectivity, and technological literacy.

This chapter introduces specialty eggs whose composition, production system or marketing attributes differ from conventional eggs. It examines designer eggs, omega-3 enrichment, vitamin and mineral enrichment, organic egg production, free-range and cage-free systems, and welfare-oriented production. The chapter also addresses labelling, certification, consumer trust and the market prospects of specialty eggs. Particular attention is given to the biological basis and technological limits of nutritional enrichment and to critically evaluating claims concerning nutrition, welfare, safety and environmental benefits.