eChapters

Vegetables constitute a substantial part of human diet supplying vitamins and minerals, in which other food materials are deficient. India has emerged out as the second largest producer of vegetables in the world. More than 25% of fruits and vegetables are damaged by the attack of insect-pests (Pradhan, 1964).Vegetable crop is damaged by both sucking as well as chewing insect-pests. Sucking pests are aphids, whitefly, jassids and bugs attacking in initial stage whereas chewing pests like borers, infesting in flowering and fruiting stage. Sucking pests may transmit the viral diseases which cause severe loss in yield in tomato and okra crops. About 13-14 % of total pesticides used in the country are applied on vegetables. Average pesticide consumption in vegetables in India around 0.678 a.i. kg/ha. Maximum pesticide usage in chilli followed by brinjal, cole crops and okra. Global agro-chemical consumption dominated by fruits and vegetables, accounting 25 % of total pesticide market. Major insect-pests of different vegetable crops and their management are as follows:
 
Cole crops

Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var capitata) and Cauliflower (Brassica olercea var botrytis L) are grown in cold and moist climate. It is rich in minerals namely iron, magnesium, phosphorous and sodium. Cole crops were attacked by number of insect pests and cause heavy economic loss. The major insect pests are described below along with their management:

Introduction

With the change in global scenario there is increase in pressure of meeting the food requirements of rapid growing population but due to scarcity of resources it is becoming very difficult to meet the needs of present population but even if there is so much problem still nature has provided solution to sort out from it through hybrid seed production through male sterility. As male sterility is a condition in which pollen grain is either absent or non-functional in the pollen grain. Its first case was reported by Koelreuter in 1763. Later many scientist have reported about its role in hybrid seed production. Mainly the male sterility is characterized by malformation of androecium, lack of normal anther sac, inability of pollen to mature or to release from the anther sac and inability to develop normal microspore or pollen. Due to such malformation male sterility is characterized into phenotypic male sterility, genotypic male sterility and chemically induced male sterility. Later in 1998, Kaul further generalised the phenotypic male sterility into structural, sporogenous and functional male sterility. In case of structural male sterility stamens are completely absent or if present then it is either malformed or modified into other floral part. While in case of sporogenous male sterility a case of abnormal microsporogenesis has been reported. In functional male sterility pollen development is normal but its function is impaired.Genotypic male sterility which is further classified into genetic, cytoplasmic and cytoplasmic genetic male sterility.

Introduction

Droughts are considered to be a significant environmental disaster and have captured the attention of various experts, including environmentalists, ecologists, hydrologists, meteorologists, geologists, and agricultural scientists. These natural calamities are known to occur in almost all climatic zones, regardless of whether they are high- or low-rainfall areas. Generally a decrease in the amount of precipitation received over an extended period such as a season or a year, is the primary cause of droughts. However, other factors such as high temperatures, strong winds, low relative humidity, and characteristics of rainfall (e.g., intensity, duration, onset, and termination) also play a crucial role in their occurrence. It’s important to distinguish a drought from aridity, which is a permanent feature of a climate and is limited to low rainfall areas (Wilhite, 1992). A drought is a temporary phenomenon and can last from a few months to several years. Some people often mistake droughts for heat waves, but Chang and Wallace (1987) highlighted the fundamental difference between these two events. A heat wave typically lasts for a week, while a drought can extend for several months or even years. When a heat wave and a drought coincide, it can lead to dire socio-economic consequences.

Okra [(Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench] is one of the traditional vegetable crop cultivated in tropical, subtropical and warmer regions of the world. Okra fruits are rich in calcium (90 mg/100 g fresh weight) and provide valuable supplementary items in the tropical diet which is starchy in nature lacking calcium and iron. The root and stem are used for clearing cane juice in preparation of jaggery or ‘gur’. The high iodine content of fruits helps prevent goiter, while leaves are used in inflammation and dysentery. It has yet multiple uses. The dry seed contains 13-22 % good edible oil and 20-24 % protein. The oil is used in soap, cosmetic industry and as vanaspati, while protein is used for fortified feed preparations. The crushed seed is fed to cattle for increasing the milk production and the fibre is utilized in jute, textile and paper industries. India ranks first in the world with 7.16 million tonnes of production 5.49 lakh hectares of area. Gujarat is the leading okra-producing state which produces around 1147.66 thousand tonnes from an area of 93.95 thousand hectares followed by West Bengal. Fresh fruit of okra is exported to UAE, Sri Lanka, the Netherlands, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Nepal, UK, Saudi Arabia and Qatar. The national average productivity is very low (11.70 t/ha), that the crop is prone to damage by major biotic stresses like fungus, nematodes and viruses like Yellow Vein Mosaic Virus and Enation Leaf Curl Virus. The yield potential of okra is low; however, it could be improved through hybridization. Marked heterosis has been reported in okra for yield and its components.

Introduction
Improved varieties, hybrids and quality seeds are considered as the basic and key inputs for the development of agriculture and horticulture. High quality seed production has been the major concern in the Indian sub-continent till 1960s. Before that, India was mostly dependent on USA for food grain. After 1960, Government of India established State Agricultural Universities in different states following “Land grant model” of USA, different ICAR Research institutes and All India Coordinated Crop Research Projects in a systematic manner to give the boost to develop large number of improved varieties with assured seed quality in all major agricultural and horticultural crops. The ultimate intention was to introduce the newly developed high yielding varieties for broad spectrum cultivation in the area of their adoption.
Importance of variety and system of its release
There are several ways and means to increase the crop production and productivity, however using genetically pure and high-quality seed is first and prime objective in agriculture/ horticulture. Govt. of India acknowledged seed as an essential commodity under essential commodities Act, 1955.

Okra Abelmoschus esculentus L.

Cotton Jassid Amrasca biguttula Ishida (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)

Economic importance: Sucking pest cause damage during May to September. Adults are also found on plants such as potato, brinjal, tomato, etc.

Mark of identification and life cycle: Adults are about 3 mm long and greenish yellow during the summer, acquiring a reddish tinge in the winter. The winged adults jump or fly away at the slightest disturbance and are also attracted to light at night. Females lay about 15-38 yellowish eggs on the underside of the leaves, embedding them into the leaf veins. The eggs hatch in 4-5 days. Nymphs are wedge-shaped and are very active and complete five instars with 3-5 days in each instars. Adult live for 11days.

Nature of damage: Damage to the crop is caused by the adults as well as by the nymphs, both of which are very agile and move briskly, forward and sideways. They suck cell-sap from the underside of the leaves and pass through six stages of growth in 7-21 days. They feed constantly on the plant juice. The pest completes seven generations in a year. Damage symptoms: Injury to plants is due to the loss of sap and probably also due to the injection of toxins. The attacked leaves turn pale and then rust-red. With change in appearance, the leaves also turn downwards, dry up and fall to the ground.

RECORD KEEPING

Objectives

• To carry out the routine activities of animal house
• Breeding of animals

Materials required- Different types of record

Proper record keeping is very important and it is also highly essential to carry out the animal house activity in a systematic manner. The records should be simple, complete and should preferably be computer compatible.

The records are kept and maintained in different forms. Unnecessary information should be avoided in these records. The records of breeding, experimental animal and morality of animals are highly essential. Other records are:

Dirying in India has traditionally been the preserve of landless agricultural labourers and small and marginal farmers, who have maintained very small herd sizes. However, of late, with increasing consumer awareness regarding milk quality, there has been a marked increase in the number of large, well-organized dairy farms which cater to predominantly urban markets. Terms like clean milk production, organic milk, microbial load of milk etc. are being used more frequently while referring to milk quality. Larger, intensive dairy farms not only profit from the economies of scale by way of optimum utilization of land, labour and resources, but also benefit from the fact that it is easier and cost-effective to implement more efficient technologies like machine milking, manufacture of by products, chilling, packaging, bulk transport etc. Further, most of these farms are able to realize a premium price for their products on account of high quality and brand identity, thus leading to greater profitability.

9.1. Challenges for Nigeria

Nigeria, at independence in 1960, was largely a producer and net exporter of primary products. The six major agricultural products then were cocoa, rubber, palm oil, groundnut, cotton and palm kernel. Although there existed mining and quarrying activities, these were of negligible percentage and never counted for the economy as a whole. In other words, agricultural produce and raw materials constituted the sole foreign exchange earner for the country. Specifically, the Nigerian state as an exporter of agricultural goods had 69.4% of its total GDP for the year 1963/64 comprising the six aforementioned agricultural commodities (Olaloku, 1979:8).

The trend of having agriculture as the main foreign exchange earner for Nigeria stopped in the early 1970s when the country was suddenly awash with petrol dollars arising from the quadruple increase in the price of oil in the world market. From 1972 onwards, oil gained ascendancy over all other commodities as the largest contributor to the GDP, and also as a major foreign exchange earner. There was substantial increase in oil production accompanied by a sharp increase in the global market price of high-grade crude oil from low price of $3.8 per barrel in October 1973 to a skyrocketing price of $14.7 per barrel in January 1974. This trend continued till 1981 when the price of crude oil attained a high level of $38.77 per barrel. Within the same period, total revenue from oil rose correspondingly from ? 1 billion to ? 4 billion while external reserves increased from ? 180 million to ? 3.7 billion in 1975 (Osaghae, 1998:96).

M/s. AARPY BIO SOLUTION

M/s. ABAN INFRASTRUCTURE LIMITED

M/s. ABHAY-CHEM

M/s. ABIOCIS BIO-SCIENCE PVT LTD

M/s. ABT CORPORATION

The refrigerator (called a ‘fridge’ by most people) is a box like equipment which uses electricity to keep the temperature inside the box lower than the atmosphere outside. Food kept at such a low temperature thus does not spoil for a long time. The refrigerator also serves the purpose of giving us cold water and ice in summer. By preserving food in the refrigerator, one can delay the growth of bacteria, keep food items fresh and thus save time and energy of the homemaker in meal preparation.

Introduction
Haemoprotozoan diseases are highly prevalent in tropical and sub-tropical countries owing to the ubiquitous distribution of ticks and blood-sucking flies which are natural vectors for the pathogens. In India, theileriosis, babesiosis and trypanosomosis are major haemoprotozoan diseases and cause substantial economic losses to the livestock industry. Though vaccination of the susceptible stock by attenuated schizont vaccine is available for the control of tropical theileriosis in cattle, chemotherapy is the mainstay for the control of haemoprotozoan diseases. However, the limited available antihaemoprotozoan drugs is being depleted by a combination of two factors viz. emergence of drug resistance and the failure to replace old drugs (de Koning, 2017). Drug resistance against parasites is one of the emerging problems affecting veterinary health sector. Since last few decades, development of drug resistance in haemoprotozoan parasites to several drugs has been reported (Tuvshintulga et al., 2019; Ali et al., 2022). Though, understanding of drug resistance in parasitic protozoa is progressing steadily but possibly not as rapidly as parasites are becoming resistant to drugs. The genetic changes in the target sites, the reduced uptake and increased efflux of drugs, and metabolic regulations are the possible mechanism for the cause of drug resistance (Fairlamb et al., 2016). Anti-protozoan drug resistance has been reported in many economically important protozoa to isometamedium, diminazene aceturate, quinapyramine, suramin, melarsomine dihydrochloride, buparvaquone. The resistance initially evolves at genetic level of parasite with genetic traits that allow them to survive exposure to a drug, which is transferred to the subsequent generation thereby potentially increasing the percentage of resistant parasite that can survive subsequent exposure to the chemical. The emergence of drugresistant parasites has serious implications for treating clinical cases, leading to increased morbidity and mortality among the animals and control of the diseases.

The measure of scatteredness of observation around their average is necessary to get a better description of data. The extent or degree to which data tend to spread around an average is called Dispersion or Variation. Measure of Dispersion also called the averages of second order; help us to measure the scatteredness of observation around an average. The commonly used measures of dispersion are as follows;

Ridge or ribbed gourd (Luffa acutangula (Roxb.)L.) is grown commercially and in homesteads for its immature fruits which are used as cooked vegetable. It is a popular vegetable both as spring-summer and rainy season crops. It is grown in tropical and subtropical countries, especially in Asia and India as an important cucurbitaceous vegetable crop (Jansen et al., 1993). The immature fruit is a rich source of dietary fiber and minerals (Sheshadri, 1990). Apart from culinary properties, it has vast medicinal properties which are traditionally used for the curing of stomach ailments and fever (Burkill, 1985; Chakravarty, 1990). The genus derives its name from the byproduct 'loofah', which is used in bathing sponges, doormats, scrubber pads, mattresses, pillows and in cleaning utensils. The tender fruits are prescribed for people suffering from malaria and other seasonal fevers because it is easy to digest and act as an appetizer. Ridge gourd contains 0.5g protein, 3.4g carbohydrates, 37mg carotene and 18mg vitamin C per 100g of edible portion. Some round varieties of ridge gourd are also used for stuffing purposes.

Ridge gourd is originated from India and is grown throughout the country by many of the small and marginal farmers for their regular income. Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, West Bengal, Maharashtra and all southern states like Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu are the major states in India where ridge gourd is cultivated. It is grown in an area of 1.00 lakh ha in India with a productivity of about 10 12 t/ha which is very low.

Bones, horns, and hooves represent essential by-products of the slaughterhouse sector. Frequently obtained from deceased or fallen animals, these by-products possess considerable applications both independently and in the production of secondary goods. Their use fosters the development of secondary rural industries, consequently creating employment opportunities for individuals in rural regions. Furthermore, by fully utilizing these by-products, producers can secure higher prices for their livestock, while processors may experience
enhanced profitability. Effective management of these by-products could also play a role in reducing the costs associated with meat and meat products.
Composition of Bone
Bone constitutes roughly 15% of the weight of a dressed carcass, although this figure may fluctuate due to variables such as breed, age, fat content, and overall health. Generally, the percentage of bone in a dressed carcass is assessed as the weight of the bones in relation to the total weight of the carcass post-dressing.
The bone content varies as follows:
• Young cattle and buffalo: 15% to 20% of carcass weight.
• Older cattle and buffalo: 20% to 25% of carcass weight.
• Pigs: 15% to 20% of carcass weight.
• Sheep and goats: 25% to 30% of carcass weight.
• Poultry: 30% to 35% of carcass weight.

Introduction
 Antibiotic therapy is one of the mainapproaches of modern medicine used tofight bacterial diseases worldwide.Antibiotics comprise of any natural, synthetic, or semi-synthetic substances which interfereswith the growth and development of microbes or have killing effect onmicrobes, specifically bacteria. The availability of these antibiotics for treating various bacterial infectious diseases significantly improved the quality of life of humans as well as animals.The period from1930s to 1960s is considered as the ‘golden era’ of antibiotics during whichmost of the antibiotics available today werediscovered. Antibiotics, once known as the magic bullets of modern-day medicine, are now an “endangered species” facing the danger of extinction due to the worldwide emergence of antibiotic resistance (ABR)/antimicrobial resistance (AMR) among microbes. In general, AMR is the capacity of a microbes (bacteria, fungi, and viruses) to resist the growthinhibitory or killing activity of an antimicrobial beyond its normal susceptibility by altering their physiologyor genetic makeup. AMR has emerged as one of the most critical and complicated global public health threat due to its multi-faceted nature.World Health Organization (WHO) has declared AMR as one of the top 10 global public health threats. The emergence of AMR is closely related to the extensive use and misuse of existingantibiotics in the human and animal fields without properguidelines as well as failure to developor discover new antibiotics. AMR leads to a significant health burden worldwide as it is estimated that bacterial AMR alone attributesto 1.14 million deaths globally in the year 2021 and if left unchecked, it may contribute to 10 million deaths annually by 2050.This prediction was recently updated with the data from 2019 and reported that the deaths of 4.95 million people were related to drug-resistant bacterial infections and 1.27 million deaths were directly attributable to AMR.In addition to the health burden, AMR also increases the healthcare costs and imposes significant indirect economic burdens.Increasing reports of treatment failures in patients with infections caused by multi-, extensive-, and pan-drugresistant bacteriahave been documented in literature from different part of the world. Antibiotics once normally used to treat bacterial infections are no longer effective, and it becomes vital to use “reserve” or “last resort” antimicrobials that are often more expensive. Furthermore, WHO has also emphasized that AMR not only makes infections harder to treat but also jeopardizes ancillary medical procedures such as surgeries and cancer treatments. Food may act as a carrier for the transfer of antimicrobialresistant bacteria (AMRB) and antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) to humans.Many scientific reports establish a link between the extensive use of antibiotics duringagricultural production and the increase in AMRamong human pathogens, in which food is one of thepossible transmission routes. Antibiotics are regularly added to feed as additives in intensive animal production systems at sub-therapeutic doses to stimulate growth, improve feed efficiency and avoid infections. The extensive use of antibiotics in human treatment, animal therapy and agricultural use as growth promoters are further causes of bacterial resistance to antibiotics. In recent years, the prevalence of AMR among microorganisms isolated from animal source foods (milk, meat, eggs etc) has increased. The increasing demand for quality animal protein has driven intensive farming, leading to increased antimicrobial usage. In the year 2020, global antimicrobial consumption in food-producing animals was estimated around 99,502 tonnes.Antibiotics are commonly used prophylactically infoodproducing animals and it is projected that by 2030 such usewill increase by approximately 67% globally.Despite efforts to reduce antibiotic use, many countries still rely heavily on antimicrobials for growth promotion and disease prevention. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has emphasized the need for better monitoring of antimicrobial use in animals. The emergence and spread of AMR in the food chain is considered as a multisectoral issue, because (i) antibiotics are widely used in livestock production systems (cattle, poultry etc), (ii) AMRB and ARGs can easily spread at each stage of the food production chain, and (iii) these AMRB can cause infections in humans.Thus, the emergence of AMR along the food chain is a major

Introduction Colostrum feeding • Colostrum is rich source of gamma globulins (antibodies), vitamins and minerals • Colostrum Temp.: 99ºF-102ºF • Colostrum feeding: first 3-5 days. • Whole milk: after 5 days • Feed the total amount of milk at 3 or 4 equal intervals up to the age of 7 days and then twice daily • Quantity of colostrum: 10 % of body weight. • Overfeeding: calf scour/diarrhea. • Around 0.5% of a cow’s yearly milk production is made up of colostrum. • After birth, the amount of immunoglobulins that can be absorbed from colostrum drops by 1/3 as soon as 6 hours, by 2/3 after 12 hours, and an intestinal barrier forms after 24 hours. • Colostrum must be given in sufficient amounts to the newborn calf because during the first 24 hours after parturition, the permeability of the stomach and the concentration of immunoglobulins drop sharply. • Cow colostrum must meet minimum requirements for both immunological and bacteriological characteristics:

This chapter introduces emerging technologies and future directions shaping egg science and the egg industry. It examines novel and non-thermal processing, active and intelligent packaging, sustainable packaging, egg analogues and plant-based alternatives, precision layer farming and digital tools. Nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications are also explored. The chapter evaluates the environmental footprint and sustainability of egg production and identifies research gaps and opportunities, particularly for India. It concludes with a future-oriented perspective on improving cold-chain infrastructure, grading, food safety, welfare, value addition, sensing and evidence-based development of the Indian egg industry.

Indian agriculture is predominantly a rainfed agriculture under which both dry farming and dry land agriculture is included. Dry farming was the earlier concept for which amount of rainfall (less than 500 mm annually) remained the deciding factor for more than 50 years. In modern concept, dry land areas are those where the balance of moisture is always on the deficit side. In other words, annual evapo-transpiration exceeds precipitation. In dry land agriculture, there is no consideration of amount of rainfall. It may appear quiet strange to a layman that even those areas which receive 1100 mm or more rainfall annually fall in the category of dry land agriculture under this concept. The success of crop production in these areas depends on the amount and distribution of rainfall, as these influences the stored soil moisture and moisture used by crops. The amount of water used by the crop and stored in the soil is governed by the water balance equation: ET = P-(R+S). When the balance of the equation shifts towards right, precipitation (P) is higher than ET, so that there may be water logging or it may even lead to run off (R) and flooding (S). On the other hand, if the balance shifts to the left, ET becomes higher then the precipitation, resulting in drought in the various severity. Taking the country as a whole, as per meteorological report, severe drought in large area is experienced once in 50 years and partial drought in five years while floods are expected every year in one part of the country or the other, especially during rainy season. In fact the balance of the equation is controlled by the weather, season, crops and cropping pattern. Out of 142 million ha of net sown area in the country, rainfed agriculture is practiced in 95 million ha (67%). Nearly 67 m ha of rainfed area falls in the mean annual precipitation range of 500-1500 mm.

Introduction to Nano-materials

Nano-sized materials are naturally present from forest fires and volcanoes, but are also generated unintentionally from anthropogenic sources as a by-product of combustion and deliberately as manufactured nanomaterials. Nanoparticles have been used for centuries. The coloured glass that we see in many old cathedrals from the middle age was made of gold nanosized clusters that created different colour depending on the size of the nanoparticles. The most prominent example of engineered nanoparticulate material is carbon black which has been around us for decades in applications like printing inks, toners, coatings, plastics, paper, tires and building products.
 
Two of the major factors why nanoparticles have different properties (optical, electrical, magnetic, chemical and mechanical) than bulk material are because in this size-range, the quantum effects start to predominate and the surface area to volume ratio is increased.