eChapters

In any scientific investigation and research, a comprehensive review of literature is very essential. Its main function, apart from determining the work done before concerning the problem area i.e., area of investigation, to provide an insight into the methods and procedures and create a basis for interpretation of findings. As direct references of all the items are not in abundance, certain specific references along with some indirect references have been incorporated in this chapter for the purpose of meaningful use. In the present study, reviews of literature have been summarized in the following table

ABSTRACT

The concept of the Kissan Call Centres-KCCs (Farmers’ Call Centres-FCCs)) was a logical outcome of the Government of India’s (GOI’s) commitment to leverage the ICT for overcoming the constraints of distance and time in providing new generation extension services to the farmers of the country by facilitating their direct virtual contact with the agricultural extension and expert personnel. The study on KCC has shown that farmers in the age group of 29 to 48 years are the biggest user group of KCC helpline. In terms of academic background, farmers with a minimum exposure of six to seven years to formal schooling (86%) seek to utilize the KCC support and relatively inexperienced farmers with less than 10 years of experience are more likely (47.5%) to call the KCC. The scope to enhance awareness and access among women farmers to the KCC helpline is huge as their current levels of participation are negligible. As regards the performance of KCCs, 84% of the farmers who called the KCCs expressed overall satisfaction from the advice provided through the helpline.

Introduction

Low and erratic rainfall, extreme temperatures, long sunshine duration, high wind velocity, high evapotranspiration, low fertility of soil and paucity of water resources characterize hot arid region of India. Despite these hostile conditions, the region supports a large number of human and livestock population. However, the ever increasing human and livestock population and developmental activities exerts enormous pressure on natural resources and posing serious threat to sustainability of the region. In these hostile environmental conditions, several indigenous agroforestry systems are being practiced by farmers of this region (Shankarnarayanan et al. 1987). The agroforestry, which is a dynamic, ecologically based natural resource management practices that, through the integration of trees and other tall woody plants on farms and in the agricultural landscape, diversify production for increased social, economic and environmental benefits (ICRAF 2000). A number of studies have recognized the multiple benefits of agroforestry that include carbon sequestration, reducing forest degradation, biomass production, food security, income diversification, improvement and maintenance of soil biodiversity, provision of wildlife corridors, and a host of other ecological services and social benefits. In the last three decades, agroforestry has been widely promoted in the tropics as a natural resource management strategy that attempts to balance the goals of agricultural development with the conservation of soils, water, local and regional climate

INTRODUCTION

The role for economic theory is no longer simply to explain how the existing system works, but also to explore how the economic system can be changed to become more adaptive and resilient in the face of the challenges of the 21st century, and how it can be more directly designed to support human well-being, in the present and the future. Simultaneous changes are needed, in both the actual economy and also in theoretical approaches of economics. The economic theory that was accepted as standard in the non-communist world during the second half of the twentieth century erects serious impediments to meeting the challenges of the twenty-first century. In order to redirect economics to be more useful, and more truly reflect the world we now face, a good starting point is to go back to the goals that are embedded in economic thinking. Here it is useful to make the distinction between intermediate and final goals. Final goals are ends that are worth achieving in themselves, while intermediate goals are pursued because they are expected to contribute to the final goals. As final goals for any economy are ‘well-being and equity in the present’ and second is ‘productive capital for the future’. Productive capital needed to maintain well-being also necessarily includes natural resources, as well as human health and education, and cohesive social systems. Increasing production and consumption are important intermediate goals for humankind in some times and places. Other obviously critical intermediate goals include climate mitigation, and promoting resilience and adaptation within both human society and ecological systems. Responding to global inequity as well as global climate change requires coordinated public policy to fundamentally redirect existing economic systems. In addition to a much greater emphasis on equity, economic theory that is appropriate to the needs of the twenty-first century will need to be more concerned with the meta-externalities of the economic system. The business sphere is currently creating meta-externalities of culture and politics that place great burdens on the core sphere, and that tie the hands of governments. This does not necessarily imply that the for-profit sphere is “bad” and the others “good”—rather that institutional changes must be made to bring the purposes and functions of all three spheres into better harmony. To address such a complex issues, economic theories and models that developed in the past should embedded with new advent in computational technologies. In venturing a vision of technological possibilities rather than simply projecting linear or exponential changes in performance, it is crucial to think not only of how technical improvements lead to the substitution of a new generation of tools for existing ones, but also of how entirely new uses, and indeed new needs, might emerge.

Micronutrient deficiency

Micronutrient deficiencies are the cause for widespread health problems, especially in developing countries. The deficiencies in vitamin A, iron, and iodine have been identified as the greatest concern, as they affect over one third of the world’s population (WHO, 1995). In addition, these micronutrients interact with each other, i.e., synergistic effects between iodine deficiency disorder (IDD) and iron deficiency anemia (IDA), or between vitamin A deficiency (VAD) and IDA to deepen their negative impacts (Lonnerdal, 2004; Lynch, 1997; Zimmermann et al., 2004). Deficiencies typically coexist in children in developing countries (Zimmermann et al., 2000).

70% of people in India do not consume enough micronutrients such as vitamins and minerals. About 70% of pre-school children suffer from anaemia caused by iron deficiency and 57% of preschool children have sub–clinical Vitamin A deficiency. Neural Tube Defects (NTDs) are the most common congenital malformation with an incidence that varies between 0.5-8/1000 births. It is estimated that 50-70% of these birth defects are preventable. One of the major causes is deficiency of folic acid. Thus, micronutrient deficiency also known as “hidden hunger”, is a serious health risk. Unfortunately, those who are economically disadvantaged do not have access to safe and nutritious food. Others either do not consume a balanced diet or lack variety in the diet because of which they do not get adequate micronutrients. Often, there is considerable loss of nutrients during the processing of food.

4.1 Research Setting

In any social science research, it is hardly possible to conceptualize and perceive the data and interpret the data more accurately until and unless a clear understanding of the characteristics in the area and attitude or the behavior of people is at commend of the interpreter who intends to unveil an understanding of the implication and behavioral complexes of the individual who live in the area under reference and form a representative part of the larger community. The socio-demographic background of the local people in a rural setting has been critically administered in this section. A research setting is a surrounding in which input and elements of research are contextually imbibed, interactive and mutually contributive to the system performance. Research setting is immensely important in the sense because it is characterizing and influencing the interplays of different factors and components.

Introduction

The term horticulture first appeared in English literature in 1678 in the treatise “The New World of English” authored by E. Phillips in London. In ancient scriptures, the garden is mentioned in Vatsayan. During the ancient period, gardens were the sole means of recreation, leisure, and pleasure. The planting of trees was undertaken for the purpose of shade, shelter, and fruits. It is quoted the queen of Raja Dashrath made a question that “What is the meaning of planting trees and garden”. Raja Dasharath responds that “the very meaning of planting trees and taking fruit plantation is the shade and fruits to the passersby”

Horticulture accounts for about 30% of India’s GDP from 13.08% of the cropped area. It stands for about 37.1% of the total export of agricultural commodities. The country shares about 13.6% of the fruit production and 14% of vegetable production (Indian Hortic Database, 2014). Horticulture shares for more than 33% of agricultural production. The horticultural production touched the mark of 300.64 million tonne during 2016–2017 which marks the sixth straight year horticultural production outstripping that of food grain production estimated at 276 million tonne in 2016–2017. It stands witness to structural changes in Indian agriculture in which the farmers have increasingly adopted the cultivation of commercial horticultural crops due to increasing market demand and quicker cash flow.

Abstract
The digital transformation of agricultural marketing has become a cornerstone for enhancing efficiency, transparency, and profitability in India’s agricultural sector, with particular relevance for the Union Territory of Jammu & Kashmir (J&K). This paper explores how digital tools— such as mobile applications, online marketplaces, blockchain, and data analytics—are simplifying supply chains, strengthening market connectivity, and minimizing information gaps between farmers and the marketplace. Nationwide, the introduction of platforms like e-NAM (National Agriculture Market) and mobile advisory services have empowered farmers with realtime pricing, market trends, and data-driven decision-making, fostering more equitable and competitive markets. In J&K, digital Agri-marketing holds unique promise for overcoming challenges related to geographic isolation, limited logistics, and fragmented supply chains by linking local farmers to broader national and global markets. Through case studies, this research highlights the impact of digital solutions on the region’s fruit, saffron, and horticultural sectors, with a focus on scaling these initiatives to spur regional growth. The study concludes that expanding digital infrastructure and providing targeted training programs are crucial steps for empowering farmers in remote areas, advancing inclusive growth and strengthening rural economies.
Keywords: Digital transformation, profitability, blockchain, real-time pricing, limited logistics.

Secondary tillage equipment refers to agricultural machinery used after primary tillage (such as plowing) to refine the soil for planting. It helps in breaking down clods, incorporating organic matter, controlling weeds, improving soil aeration, and preparing the seedbed. This step is essential for creating ideal soil conditions for seed germination and root development.
Secondary tillage operations are lighter, finer tasks performed after primary tillage to establish the proper soil texture for planting. These operations cause minimal soil inversion or shifting, and they consume less power per unit area compared to primary tillage. The tools used in secondary tillage include various types of harrows, rollers, pulverizers, rotary tillers, tools for mulching and fallowing, and cage wheels.
Key objectives of secondary tillage is:
• To enhance the seedbed by further breaking down the soil.
• To eliminate grasses and weed seeds from the field.
• To chop crop residues and incorporate them into the topsoil.
• To break large clods and create a smooth, level field surface.
TYPES OF SECONDARY / MINIMUM TILLAGE EQUIPMENT
Below mentioned are some of the main types of secondary tillage implements:

Introduction

Hybrid is the first generation cross-produced through crossing between two genetically different plants, lines or varieties. The seeds produced in this way are called hybrid vigour, which serves as a key for increasing the yield of many self, and cross-fertilized crops. With limited possibilities of horizontal expansion in area and to meet the ever-increasing demand of quality vegetables by growing populations, the exploitation of hybrid vigour is best option for increasing both productivity and quality. Vegetable hybrids under optimum crop production and protection management produce economically more yield than improved, open-pollinated varieties. The uniform size, early maturity, improved nutritional quality, adaptability to adverse environments and resistance to various biotic and abiotic stresses, are additional advantages of hybrids resulting in better monetary returns to growers. Development of hybrids in vegetables brought about a near revolution but still India has not been able to harvest full potential of hybrid technology as compared to USA, Japan, Canada, Europe and Israel. About 10-12% of the total vegetable area is under hybrids in India as against 75-90% in Japan or USA. In India, only tomato and cabbage are leading vegetable crops, occupying 30-35% area under hybrids while rest of the vegetables cover less than 15%. The hybrid seed production and their cultivation, therefore, should be popularized on warfooting to achieve the targets. Many hybrids have been developed both by public and private organizations as given in Chapters 6 of Table 6, which are competing among themselves to produce best hybrids to compete in world market and selling seeds on very high rates ranging from Rs 5,000 to 50,000/ kg of seed. Though, they are making very huge profits but their contribution in promotion of hybrid technology is exemplary and cannot be overlooked.

Introduction

India is emerging as a major stake holder in the global horticulture scenario. More emphasis is given to underutilized fruits due to their high nutritive and medicinal value in addition to being resistant/tolerant to many biotic / abiotic stresses. Jamun (Syzygium cuminii Skeels), fruits are used as an effective medicine against diabetes, heart and liver trouble (Singh and Singh, 2012). The powder of seeds has high value being useful in the treatment of diabetes. Therefore, the jamun fruits are having high value in terms of therapeutic and nutrition. Fruits and seeds of tamarind have tremendous potential for industrial use. Mahua (Bassia latifolia) is a boon for tribal farmers of Gujarat. The corolla commonly called as mahua flowers is a rich source of sugar containing appreciable amount of vitamins and minerals. Flowers (fresh and dried) and spent flowers (after fermentation) are also used as feed for livestock. Fruits are eaten as raw or cooked. Seeds are good source of oil. The oil obtained from Mahua kernel is used for edible purpose and permitted for preparation of vegetable oil. Mahua oil is used in manufacture of soap, lubricating grease, fatty alcohols and candles. Chironji (Buchanania lanzan Spreng) is excellent tree of agro forestry and social forestry. The flesh of ripe fruit is very palatable and the oily kernels are good source of protein (28-30%) and are used in preparation of sweets. Kernel oil can be used to substitute olive and almond oil. Khirni (Manilkara hexandra) thrives well on rocky, gravelly, saline and sodic soils and is good source of sugars and antioxidants. It is being used commercially as rootstock for sapota. Tamarind has tremendous potential under semi arid conditions (Singh and Singh, 2013). The medicinal properties of the bael (Aegle marmelos Correa) fruit are due to high marmelosin content. The pulp of mature bael fruit is very effective to cure dysentery and diarrhoea Varieties on jamun (Goma Priyanka and Thar Kranti), bael (Goma Yashi, Thar Divya and Thar Neelkanth), tamarind (Goma Prateek) and chironji (Thar Priya) have been developed. These varieties are precocious bearer with good yield and quality attributes and suitable for high density planting. These minor fruits have potential in secondary agriculture through value addition. Minor fruits have been conserved at the station and it has great potential under semi-arid regions of western India.

Introduction

Solar energy could be converted to electricity both through thermal route and photovoltaic cells but the latter is more advantageous as it has no moving part, it doesn’t require water, a rare commodity specifically in arid regions. Moreover, the maintenance of PV systems is easy, it can be installed right at the place of utility, the system is modular and these are reliable having life more than twenty years and of course eco-friendly.

In photovoltaic cells, generally known as solar cells, charge carriers are generated by the incoming irradiance (energy greater than band gap) and these are separated and swept away by an internal electric field, which is created by either making metal semiconductors contact (Schottky barrier) or p-n junction or MIS (Metal Insulator Semiconductor) or SIS (Semiconductor Insulator Semiconductor) devices. The height of potential barrier at the junction determines the voltage and the flowing charge carriers contribute to the current when connected externally. The choice of material depends on its band gap, absorption coefficient, diffusion length, mobility of charge carriers, ease in contact formation, type of junction with thermal and electronic compatibility, availability of material, toxicity and several other fabricational opto-electronic and practical aspects. PV cells based on single crystal and polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, CdS, CdTe, CuInGaSe, InP, GaAs etc. have been much studied. PV modules of efficiency above 16% on silicon and 10% on CdTe, CuInGaSe and 8-9 % on amorphous silicon are commercially available. Dye sensitized TiO₂ devices have also been receiving more attention with coloured panels for windows. Organic semiconductors are explored and more recently perovskite solar cell has been studied. Flexible solar cell panels based on thin film devices are in use. The applications have gone from solar lighting to operation of pumps, small and medium size equipment, stand alone and grid connected solar power plants, roof top and building integrated PV and now even energizing cars and aero planes. With technological advancement and enhanced production (233 GW in 2015) the cost of commercially available PV modules, which used to be high at one time has been brought down from 30 $/Wp in seventies to about $0.5/Wp at present.

The study is confined to tribal zone of Orissa, especially of Koraput district where tribes account for 49.69% of the district population. The sample SHG were selected from Sadar, Similiguda and Koraput blocks without any prejudice to their performance. At the outset, it is admitted that SHG has created a sensation among the tribes to look forward the development process. The present study ‘SHG in Techno-Economic Empowerment of Tribal Women’ has been conceived to find out inter-play of technological and economic variables that reflect in social status.

Membership status

SHG starts with the philosophy of micro-approach. Small sized group dynamics, available technology and economic opportunity linked with market structure are the perceived objectives to bring change in livelihood system. The study considered the age of SHG, present membership status, rate of discontinuance as the basic factors of SHG in tribal zone.

1. INTRODUCTION

Food processing involves the use of wide range of unit operations and technologies to transform the raw, bulky and perishable food into more shelf-stable, palatable and marketable food products. Food processing is one of the most effective solution to reduce the wastages, improves the quality and safety aspects of food products, increase the food availability and marketability. Fruits and vegetables are considered as an integral part of any dietary system as these are rich sources of vitamins, minerals and dietary fibres. India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables after Brazil and China which contributes 10 % of world fruit production and 14 % of world vegetable production. Fruits and vegetables are more prone to spoilage as compared to cereals due to their nature and composition. The spoilage can be occurr at the time of harvesting, handling transportation, storage, marketing and processing that results in lot of wastage in the form of seeds, pulps, peels etc. Efficient management of these wastes can help in preserving vital nutrients of fruits and vegetables, and bringing down the cost of production of processed foods, besides minimizing pollution hazards. In India, processing of fruits and vegetables is extremely low as compared to the developed countries.

Biotechnology can help in the bio-processing of fruits and vegetables for the production of novel products having better sensory and nutritional qualities, improved shelf life. Bio-processes involve the use of different micro-organisms and enzymes along with modern biotechnological techniques like genetic engineering.

India is the second-largest producer of fruits in the world after China. However, the average productivity of fruits in India could be higher compared to many developed countries. The main reasons for low productivity are old and senile orchards, low-yielding varieties, poor orchard management, and inadequate technological upgradation and adoption by the growers. Presently, due to urbanization and population explosion, there is a continuous decline in the availability of cultivable land; rising energy and land costs, together with the increased demand for horticultural produce, have given thrust to the concept of high-density planting (HDP) in fruit crops. However, at the same time, it is now realized that there is limited scope for a quantum jump in fruit production in traditional areas. Therefore, the alternative is to expand under non-traditional regions like arid and semi-arid areas of the country. India’s hot arid and semi-arid regions are spread mainly in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Punjab, and Haryana. The vast land resources offer an excellent opportunity for fruit production in the Indian arid zone, which is spread over about 31.70 m ha, of which 41.50% is arable and 19% is a cultivable wasteland (Table 1).

Fungi include a large group of organisms and there are about 72,000 described species and the total number of species in the world may be as high as 1.5 million (Hawksworth et al., 1995). The infections that these fungi cause on a group of organisms viz. plants, animals, insects etc. may or may not be beneficial depending upon the type of host infected. With reference to insects, fungal infections in pest insects are beneficial which can be used effectively in biocontrol programmes. On the other hand, fungal infections in beneficial insects are harmful.

The entomopathogenic or entomogenous fungi mainly include those genera of fungi that associate with insects and some arthropods in a variety of ways. The association with the insects may be saprophytic, commensalistic, parasitic or pathogenic with the insect host. Some entomopathogenic fungi like Coelomomyces are obligate pathogens which can’t be cultured outside a living host, but most of them are however, facultative pathogens capable of growing without host insect. More than 750 spp of fungi, mostly deuteromyctes and entomophthorales from about 100 genera are pathogenic on insects and many of them offer great potential for pest management. The entomopathogenic fungi which have been most intensively investigated include Beauveria, Metarrhizum, Paecilomyces, Entomophthora, Verticillium, Hirsutella, Eryina, Mefarrhizium etc. Out of them Beauveria and Mefarrhizium have been extensively used in large scale for the control of several crop pests.

ABSTRACT

A watershed is a topographically delineated area that is drained by a stream system, i.e. the total land area above some point on a stream or river that drains past that point. The watershed is a hydrologic unit that often is used as a physical – biological unit and a social – economic political unit for the planning and management of natural resources. Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques can be used effectively to generate the land use/land cover for evaluating the changes in an area. Conventional methods of runoff measurements are not easy for inaccessible terrain of Tamilnadu. Remote sensing technology can augment the conventional method to a great extent in rainfall-runoff studies. In this study, SCS Curve Number technique modified for Indian condition has been used for generation of CN for an ungauged watershed. A sub watershed of Manimuktha watershed is considered as study area. The daily rainfall data of Virudhachalam rain gauge station is collected and used to predict the daily runoff from the watershed using GIS based Soil Conservation Service -Curve Number (SCS – CN) method (USDA, 1972). Monthly and annual runoff values are obtained from the daily runoff values of the watershed. Base map, Soil map and Land use map of the study area are prepared by using Remote Sensing data and Survey of India (SOI) toposheets. PC Arc/Info GIS software is used for analysis.

Abstract

Anantapur is the driest district of Andhra Pradesh and hence, agriculture conditions are very often precarious. Groundnut grows where other crops fail and thus it is the predominant crop of Anantapur district. Groundnut is grown in about 7.5 lakh ha in Anantapur district; however the average yields are low at 500 kg ha^-1. Among various available vegetation indices, normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) is widely used for all reasons, which is a single numerical indicator of presence and condition of green vegetation. NDVI mapping at a regional scale helps to assess the spatial changes in the vigour of green vegetation and thus occurrence of any moisture stress. Climate tools have a great role in understanding the crop performance and estimating the yields. This study was taken up by using freely available MODIS data to understand NDVI in terms of abiotic stresses over Anantapur district and linking with the actual rainfall conditions, groundnut crop acreage and production. Results indicate that low groundnut yields in general could be related to NDVI-based stress measurements and rainfall quantum and distribution in the area however, with a few exceptions. It is hoped that by combining improved practices through IWM with climate-adapted crop varieties, rainfed farmers of Anantapur district can sustain their crop production under present climate variability and become resilient to future climate change.

Keywords: Climate, MODIS, NDVI, Anantapur, Groundnut, Integrated Watershed Management

Scab

Ventruia inaequalis (Spilocaea pomi Fr?)

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Symptoms generally noticed on leaves and fruits.

Fisheries comprise a major economic activity within complex interactions between human beings and water - ‘the first among equals’ of the natural resources (Ahmed, 1992). Fisheries data assembled by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) suggest that global marine fisheries catches increased to 86 million tonnes in 1996, then slightly declined. In the past three decades, employment in fisheries and aquaculture has grown at a higher rate than the growth of world population. The fishery engineering is evolving as an important domain in view of depleting stocks on both pre and post-harvest scenarios. It will also aid in fish processing technologies, optimizing energy and water use in seafood industries, mitigating climate change related issues and reducing carbon foot print. It is important to explore novel ways to obtain, quantify, and integrate industry responses to declining fishing stocks and increasing management regulations into fishery - and ecosystem-based management advice. The technological interventions help to reduce the wastage of fishes, which is otherwise a highly perishable commodity by preservation technologies and converting it into value added products with higher shelf life. Use of appropriate technologies along the fish value chain will help in producing better quality products and fetch more markets and higher price.

Major areas of technological interventions in the field of fishery engineering cover design and development of fish processing equipment and machineries, energy efficient and eco-friendly solar fish dryers, fuel efficient fishing vessels and fiberglass canoes, indigenous electronic instruments for application in harvest and post-harvest technology of fish, quality improvement of Indian fishing fleet and energy and water optimization techniques for fish processing industries. Focused areas include development of cost effective solar dryers with LPG, biomass, Infra-Red or electrical back-up heating systems, fish de-scaling machines, Fish freshness sensor etc.