eChapters

Background and Technology Intervention

Owing to the subsequent monsoon failures and unavailability of water for irrigation, Tamil Nadu farmers have switched over to drip irrigation which is not only saving huge quantity of water for them, but also preventing irrigation run off and providing deep water percolation. In Tamil Nadu, usage of drip irrigation is prevalent among vegetable and fruit growers and organic farmers.

To relieve the plants from stress or strain of water logging and water scarcity, Tamil Nadu Horticulture Development Agency has played a key role by rightly intervening the farmers through drip irrigation technology and thereby improving water use efficiency.

Introduction

In the verdant landscapes and bustling fields of India, the heartbeat of a nation pulses through its agriculture. For millennia, farming has been not just a livelihood but an intrinsic part of the cultural fabric, shaping traditions, festivals, and the very essence of community life. Yet, the modern agricultural practices, driven by the pursuit of higher yields, have strained the very soil that nurtured this civilization for centuries. In this crucible of tradition and progress, a beacon of hope emerges - regenerative agriculture - offering a path to restore, revitalize, and safeguard India's precious ecosystems.

Introduction
The aquatic ecosystem is full with harmful contaminants like heavy metals. Due to farming, mining, geochemical composition, and anthropogenic wastes, their concentration has dramatically increased. Heavy metals contaminate aquatic ecosystems through multiple pathways, such as industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, and atmospheric deposition. Once released heavy metals into water bodies, these metals undergo bioaccumulation, wherein they accumulate in aquatic organism’s tissue, including fish, gradually over time over time. Toxicity of heavy metals due to their long persistence in the environment and non-biodegradable nature. Additionally, heavy metals undergo biomagnification, leading to increasing concentrations as they ascend the food chain, posing greater risks to higher trophic level organisms, including fish. Fish serve as crucial bioindicators for evaluating the potential risks of pollution (Lakra & Nagpure, 2009). Exposure to pollutants, particularly heavy metals like cadmium (Cd), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), and copper (Cu), can lead to both acute and chronic toxicity, disrupting various physiological functions, including reproduction. A  ealthy reproductive system in fish signifies their ability to maintain population sustainability. Fish are widely consumed due to their desirable taste and affordability, making them a vital and cost- effective source of animal protein.
Fish are more susceptible to heavy metal pollution than other aquatic species, despite being one of the most widely distributed species. Some heavy metals like cadmium, mercury, arsenic, and lead have no biological significance, while some like iron, copper, and zinc are vital to the metabolism of fish. Heavy metals concentration in the water bodies has increased significantly as a result of farming, mining, geochemical composition, anthropogenic wastes, and other factors. Heavy metals are among the most hazardous and widely distributed contaminants, naturally occurring as trace elements in the hydrosphere (Sankhla & Kumar, 2019). Fish, however, breed in environments that are naturally contaminated with heavy metals. Fish reproduction is essential to the natural ecosystem and is required for the development of aquaculture. Several studies show that heavy metals interfere with fish reproduction by preventing the induction of vitellogenin, postponing oogenesis, increasing the secretion of luteinizing hormone, and lowering the parameters of the gonadal somatic index and ovulation.

A biomass gasifier is an advanced device designed to convert solid biomass materials-such as wood chips, crop residues, saw-dust, coconut shells, and other organic matter-into a combustible gas mixture known as producer gas. The conversion process, known as gasification, is a thermo-chemical process that takes place in a controlled environment with limited oxygen. Unlike complete combustion, gasification allows only partial oxidation of biomass, producing a gas rich in carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), methane (CH4), and nitrogen (N2). This gas mixture can be used as a fuel for internal combustion engines, power generation, cooking, or industrial heating applications.
Principle of Gasification
Gasification involves a sequence of four key thermo-chemical reactions within the reactor, occurring at temperatures ranging from 800–1000°C:
1. Drying Zone: Moisture present in the biomass is evaporated due to the rising heat.
H2O (liquid) ? H2O (vapor)
2. Pyrolysis Zone: Biomass decomposes in the absence of oxygen to form volatile gases, tar, and solid char.
Biomass ? Char + Volatile gases + Tar
3. Oxidation Zone: A small amount of air or oxygen is introduced to partially combust the biomass, generating heat to sustain the process.

Biopesticides presents biologically derived pest-management products as alternatives or complements to synthetic pesticides. The chapter explains their advantages, including biodegradability, target specificity, compatibility with Integrated Pest Management, reduced resistance risk, and comparatively favorable environmental characteristics. It classifies biopesticides into biochemical and microbial groups and describes mechanisms such as hyperparasitism, competition, antibiosis, parasitism, and volatile-compound production. Particular attention is given to neem and other botanical sources, including chinaberry, tobacco, pyrethrum, rotenone, and Melia toosendan. Their pest-control uses and preparation approaches demonstrate how botanical and microbial resources can contribute to sustainable crop protection and natural farming systems. for integrated crop protection effectively.

The effect of oil sludge on the growth and performance of Celosia argentea (L.) were evaluated using four levels of pollution viz: 0%; 0.25%, 0.5% and 0.75% of the 6kg soil and three levels of N.P.K. fertilizer (20:10:10) viz: low level (0.005 kg), normal level (0.01 kg) and high level (0.015kg). These treatments were imposed after the soil analysis were carried out on the site.  The results obtained show that pollution has a significant effect (P < 0.05) on the growth and performance of Celosia argentea, despite the different levels of fertilizer application with second level of pollution (0.25%) being the critical point. Thus, pollution retards the growth of this crop drastically beyond the critical level with Celosia argentea showing more tolerance to pollution at the post-application treatment than the pre-application treatment.

It is therefore suggested that land users should not embark on cultivating land that has an oil sludge pollution level beyond 0.25% of soil.

Sterilization is defined as the process by which an article, surface or medium is freed of all living microorganisms either in the vegetative or spore state.

Disinfection means the destruction or removal of all pathogenic organisms, or organisms capable of giving rise to infection. Chemical disinfectants which can be safely applied to skin or mucous membrane and are used to prevent infection by inhibiting the growth of bacteria are called antiseptics.

Five main methods are used for sterilization. 1. Red heat (flaming) 2. Dry heat (hot air) 3. Moist heat 4. Filtration 5. Radiation.

The killing effect of dry heat is due to protein denaturation, oxidative damage and toxic effect of elevated levels of electrolytes. The lethal effect of moist heat is due to the denaturation and coagulation of protein. In the case of spore, steam condenses on it, increasing its water content with ultimate hydrolysis and breakdown of the bacterial protein.

At present producers and consumers are concerned about products and their uses. In farm sector agribusiness is gaining momentum because of marketing of farm produce and its availability to the consumers at affordable rate. Agribusiness thus has been identified as important element in improving farm business. The farm business is otherwise known as agribusiness. Agribusiness is an off farm activity mainly concerned with processing and marketing. It implies that in addition to production of farm produce farmers responsibility increases to process the out-put and its sale in the market for better price. The farmers like to approach different organizations, corporation and regulated markets. Therefore attempt has been made at government level to encourage cultivators to invest in the farm business. In order to increase the efficiency of farmers there is need of keeping the business flexible encouraging farmers to invest in farm and allied sector business.

Abstract

GIS has several products that can be protected in India as copyright. The paper describes major provisions of copyright Act, 1957 that has been amended five times. GIS products qualify to be registered within various sections of the copyright Act. Patenting of software is permitted in some countries but not in India, a comparative account of these two forms of protection has been discussed with practical examples. General public licensing of open source software, translation, exclusive licensing and data sharing & accessibility policy are other areas covered in the present study and analytical learning.

Key words : copyright, patent, GIS, software, data sharing

1.0 Introduction

The copyright Act 1957 was mainly amended in 1994 and1999 to bring into complete harmony with Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs), further major amendment has been done in 2012, that include wide range changes in ownership, term of protection, copyright security, cinematography and broadcasting provisions. In the same year government of India has initiated ‘National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy (NDSAP)’ which came into operation from February 2012. At present the copyright Act and data sharing policy are the two legal and administrative instruments which facilitate the intellectual property protection and appropriate sharing among stakeholders in the country.

Japanese plum (Prunus salicina) is widely grown in hill and to a limited scale in the plains of north-western India. Although the fruit quality of plums produced in subtropical is poor however, it fetches high process in the market because of it early availability. Its availability in market at a time when the competition from other fruits is less. It is known as Japanese plum due to its cultivation in Japan from where cultivars spread to other places. At present, plum is cultivated in all temperate climate countries of the world. Plums are a familiar part of our diets. These sweet, fleshy fruit are a common sight in super market shelves. Prunus domestica, the European plum, is an important crop that has been cultivated in Europe for over 2,000 years. When the early European settlers landed on the shores of North America, they found various kinds of native plums scattered throughout the countryside, all of which were found to be of inferior quality. Until the 19th century, most plum cultivation in the United States was confined to the European varieties that were brought overseas. Today, new plum hybrids of native and Asian species have been developed for fresh market consumption, but Prunus domestica remains the prime source for processing plums. Depending on the variety, these plums can be good for either canning, drying as prunes, for culinary uses, or, in lesser amounts, eaten fresh.

Introduction

A population is the set of all objects we wish to study. A sample is part of the population we study to learn about the population. A census may be defined as an enumeration or evaluation of every member of a population. A parameter is any measurement that describes an entire population. A statistic is any measurement computed from a sample of the individual observations made. As per Best (1977), "Research is considered to be more formal, systematic, and intensive process of carrying on a scientific method of analysis."

Introduction
Aquaculture, the farming of aquatic life like fish and shellfish, has become essential for global food supply. It helps meet the rising demand for seafood, supports countless livelihoods, and promotes sustainable development. As wild fish populations dwindle due to overfishing and environmental damage, aquaculture provides a sustainable way to ensure food security and economic growth. Monosex culture, the practice of raising only one sex of a species, is particularly useful for fish like tilapia and prawns, where one sex grows faster and more efficiently. By focusing on single-sex populations, aquaculture can boost production, simplify management, and increase overall yield. Monosex culture is important because it can improve profits while protecting the environment
Historical Development of Monosex Practices
The development of the monosex culture began in the mid-20th century when scientists started to investigate ways to control the sex ratios of fish populations. Early methods focused on selective breeding to improve traits like growth rate and size. Over time, advancements in genetic manipulation and hormonal treatments have revolutionized the field, allowing for more precise control over sex determination. Hormonal treatments like 17 alpha methyltestosterone for sex reversal in tilapia during the 1970s, significantly improved production efficiency. The development of genetic technologies, such as chromosome manipulation and CRISPR, has further propelled monosex culture into mainstream aquaculture practices. Today, monosex culture is recognized as a cornerstone of sustainable aquaculture, with ongoing research aimed at refining techniques and addressing ethical considerations associated with genetic interventions.

Abstract

Himachal Pradesh has achieved a transformation in the horticulture sector during the last fifty years. The total area under fruits, which was only 793 hectares in 1950 has increased to 1.82 lakh Hectares during 2003-04, out of which temperate fruits alone cover an area of 1.20 lakh hectares. Fruit production has also increased from 1200 M.T. in 1950 to 6.92 lakh MT during 2004-05, with temperate fruits accounting for 5.92 lakh MT.  Around 4.64 lakh farmers are estimated to be involved in the fruit production programme and the fruit industry generates a gross domestic income of about Rs. 1000 crores annually. The existing problems and constraints have been identified and the remedial measures required to provide the desired impetus to the horticulture industry of the State, elaborated.

My first experience with Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook. f. (Araceae) was one of personal cultural food use. I recently came to Hawai‘i for my Ph.D. studies, and although I am Vietnamese, it was in Hawai‘i that I began experiencing many Vietnamese foods I never knew as a child growing up in the northeastern U.S. I thank the Vietnamese immigrants in Hawai‘i that became my aunties and uncles from whom I learned a great deal about my roots and the food of Vietnam. I listened to their stories and teachings while we ate together at holiday and community events, reflecting on my childhood, and considering the effects of globalization on the movement of people and plants, I have come to understand the extraordinary significance of that seemingly mundane first experience of eating C. gigantea. In this paper, I describe the botany, ethnobotany,  including a case study of C. gigantea usage in Hawai‘i and the implications for biocultural diversity, and examples for increased utilization of C. gigantea.

Abstract

Geological conditions in the Tertiary mountainous areas of the western and eastern hill ranges of Manipur often cause landslide movements. These repeatedly occur mostly in old landslide regions during rainy seasons on a large scale, causing considerable economic loss and injuries and deaths of humans. In order to improve such landslide hazard assessment of the region for effective mitigation, Electrical resistivity surveys were conducted using Schlumberger array technique on the very unstable and problematic frontal part of the Kotland landslide, NH-37, Manipur along three profiles. Electrical resistivities aided the characterization and quantification of the subsurface rock units, structure and tectonic conditions of the Landslided area which can contribute for the better planning of mitigation strategies. The results lead to the elucidation of depth of the different litho-units and the geometry of failure surface. The probable failure surface was observed between 10 and 22m depth, characterised by low resistivity (< 150 Ωm) and geometry of the sliding surface was rotational. In addition, a fault was also inferred in the resistivity pseudosection model and hence the area may be highly vulnerable to landslides.

Tree canopy management affects fruit yield and quality by affecting light interception. The canopy geometry should be managed in such a way that it intercepts maximum light. For high density planting system a shallow (thin) canopy 1.5-2.0 m in depth is needed to achieve the maximum efficiency for trapping sun energy through foliage and channelizing metabolites for quality fruit production with good return.

Concept of uncertainty

Uncertainty refers to a scenario in which a person is unsure of what will happen, i.e. when all possible outcomes of events are unknown, and neither the likelihood nor the outcomes are known. Uncertainty cannot be quantified; however, risk may be quantified using probability principles.

Farming is a financially hazardous profession. Farmers face an ever-changing panorama of possible pricing, yield, and other outcomes that affect their financial returns and overall well-being on a daily basis. Because the effects of decisions or events are frequently unknown until long after they occur, the outcomes may be better or worse than planned. When aggregate crop output or export demand fluctuates dramatically, for example, farm prices can swing dramatically, and farmers may see returns that are significantly below their expectations (Bairwa et al., 2013).

1. Introduction

A key element in the world of agriculture, agricultural extension has long been seen as the link between scientific knowledge and the practical needs of farmers. This chapter examines how technological advancements, particularly those related to artificial intelligence (AI) and the internet of things (IoT), are fundamentally altering agricultural extension services and the agricultural industry as a whole.

1.1 Definition of Agricultural Extension

The process of sharing knowledge, information, and innovations with farmers and rural communities in order to enhance their agricultural practices and, in turn, their livelihoods, is known as agricultural extension.

The specter of climate change looms large over our planet, its influence permeating every aspect of the Earth’s systems. Among the most concerning manifestations of this global shift is the increasing frequency and severity of extreme weather events, and atmospheric droughts are emerging as a particularly insidious threat. The present chapter shines a spotlight on this critical intersection, meticulously dissecting how the profound alterations in our climate are fundamentally reshaping the dynamics of atmospheric moisture Going beyond traditional notions of drought rooted in soil dryness, this chapter will illuminate the concept of atmospheric drought – a state where the air itself becomes exceptionally parched, characterized by low relative humidity and a voracious atmospheric demand for moisture. We will unravel the intricate ways in which climate change acts as a catalyst for these conditions. Rising global temperatures amplify evaporation rates, while shifts in large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns can steer moisture-laden air away from v

Crop growth is influenced by internal factors and external factors. Internal factors are controlled by the genes and hereditary. External factors are climate, edaphic, biotic, physiographic and anthropic.

Genetic Factors

Genetic factors are controlled by the genes. Plant height, yield, size and color of the grains or fruit etc. The productivity and quality of the crop can be improved by breeding through conventional methods or by biotechnological approaches.

Environmental factors Climate

Precipitation occurs in the form of rainfall, snow, hail and fog.

Fog: Consists of water droplets so small that their fall velocity is negligible. Fog particles contact vegetation and may adhere, coalesce with other droplets and eventually form a drop which is large enough to fall to ground.