eChapters

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus Moench), known in many English-speaking countries as lady’s finger or gumbo, belongs to family Malvaceae. The geographical origin of okra is disputed and supposed to be South Asian, Ethiopian and West African origins (Anonymous, 20013a). Its proposed parents are reported to be in South Asian; therefore, it is believed that perhaps it is of South Asian origin. However, because of greater diversity in okra in West African region, it is considered to be originated in West Africa. Masters (1875) proposed that it originated in India.
Okra is cultivated in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions, including the Middle East, Africa, Brazil, Turkey and southern states of USA (IBPGR, 1990; Jideani and Adetula, 1993; Acquistucci and Francisci, 2002). In tropics it is cultivated during summer and in the warmer parts of the temperate regions. It is an annual or perennial plant, growing up to 2 m height. The leaves are 10–20 cm long and broad, palmately lobed with 5-7 lobes. The flowers are 4–8 cm in diameter, with five petals which are generally yellow, but often white with a red or purple spot at the base of each petal. The fruit is a capsule which may attain length up to 18 cm containing numerous round seeds. Okra is an allopolyploid of uncertain parentage (proposed parents include Abelmoschus ficulneus, A. tuberculatus and a reported “diploid” form of okra).

Vegetable crops belonging to the family Cucurbitaceae are known as cucurbits. These include 950 species in over 90 genera, mainly distributed in the tropics and subtropics (Schaefer and Renner, 2011). Enormous diversity of cucurbit genetic resources has evolved in past centuries to cater the nutritional requirements of people in different geographical and climatic regions. A large number of cucurbitaceous vegetables coming from different centres of origin are cultivated worldwide (Table 1). However, these crops are challenged by several biotic and abiotic stresses. Cultivated varieties are constrained by market demands, the necessity for climatic adaptations, domestication bottlenecks, and in most cases, limited capacity for interspecific hybridization, creating narrow genetic bases for crop improvement. Genetic resources are the building block for any crop improvement programme and includes landraces, traditional varieties, wild, weedy and other related species constituting primary, secondary and tertiary gene pools. They are valuable sources of important genetic traits needed for developing resilient and climate smart crop varieties and therefore, important for food security. The success and pace of the development depends on the efficient use of plant genetic resources. Wild relatives are incredible genetic resources carrying several desirable attributes like nutritional quality, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses etc. Most of the crop wild relatives of cultivated crops across the world are not receiving adequate attention for their effective utilization in breeding programs. It is therefore, of utmost priority to protect them in the wild, through in-situ conservation, where they can continue to evolve and develop these useful adaptations. ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (ICAR-NBPGR) is the nodal agency for the management of national wealth of vegetable genetic resources speciallyworking for collections, characterization, identification and documentation of new germplasm. Besides, it also bears the responsibility for conservation of the germplasm for future through sustainable use. The Vegetable germplasm is being conserved both under in-situ and ex-situ genebanks. This chapter highlights the status of Cucurbit genetic resources and procedures to access the germplasm by various stakeholders for research use.
 

Introduction
Vegetable crops are highly susceptible to biotic stresses indicated by disease causing micro-organism (fungi, bacteria, virus and phytoplasma). Indiscriminate use of chemicals for the control of diseases, insect pest have
several disadvantages, particularly increased cost of cultivation, residual toxicity in food chain and development of resistance against pathogen. Management of diseases involves use of resistant varieties and integration of cultural and chemical control measures. Of the biotic stresses much of the breeding efforts have been directed towards developing resistance against diseases. In fact, breeding for resistance, has been one of the most important objective of vegetable breeder in the last half of the century. Genes that contribute to pathogen tolerance/resistance can be obtained from local germplasm resources, or through exotic lines, wild species or genera, or lines from other breedingprograms. In the biotechnological approaches for vegetable breeding also,  most of the achievement has been to generate transgenic plants resistance to disease. Often breeding for resistance has assumed greater importance in a number of vegetable crops.
Major Diseases of Tomato
Early blight: The casual organism is Alternaria solani. The symptoms appears as small, black spots with enlarged and concentric rings in a bull’s eye pattern in the center of the leaves. Tissue surrounding the spots may turn yellow. On fruits, dark brown concentric rings are seen that affects the market quality.

Globally, India ranked second in vegetable production and contributed 15.8 and 14% to global vegetable area and production, respectively. The production of vegetables in India is estimated to be 212.91 million tonnes in the year 2022-23 compared to 209.14 million tonnes in the year 2021-22. India ranked first in production of okra in the world (73% of world production) and second in brinjal (27.55%), cabbage (13%) and tomato (11%). The major vegetable growing states in India are West Bengal (14.1%), Uttar Pradesh (11.4%), Bihar (9.3%), Madhya Pradesh (8.0%) and Gujarat (7.1%). Vegetables are especially important crops for farmers with small holdings because an appreciably higher income per hectare can be generated by growing vegetables than from conventional staple crops (Genova et al, 2006). However, vegetables are generally considered more vulnerable than staple crops to stressful environmental conditions including extremes of temperatures, drought, salinity, alkalinity, water logging, mineral nutrient excesses and deficiency (Chinnusamy et al, 2005). These environmental stresses are likely to be exacerbated by the prevalent climatic changes in many parts of the world.
Among environmental factors, soil salinity stress is one of the main factor reducing production and productivity of vegetables in arid and semi-arid regions where irrigation water has excessive salt and annual rainfall is low. In India, about 6.73 million ha of land (~2.1% area of the country) is salt affected, out of which 2.96 million ha is saline and 3.77 million ha is sodic (Arora & Sharma 2017). About 75% of salt-affected areas exist in four states, i.e., Gujarat, Maharashtra, West Bengal, and Rajasthan (Mandal et al., 2018).

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) provides the highest oil yield per hectare among all oil crops (Corley and Tinker, 2008; Rival and Levang, 2014). Examining the global palm oil production statistics, which is extracted from the mesocarp of the oil palm, the total world production stands at 79.464 million tonnes. Indonesia leads the world production with 59%, while India ranks 13th with a production of 0.305 million tonnes, contributing insignificantly to the world palm oil production. Additionally, India imports about 19% of the world’s palm oil, accounting for 9.3 million tonnes, with a net worth of 11.7 billion U.S. dollars (USDA IPAD, 2024; Statista, 2024).
In this challenging scenario, expanding the cultivation area of oil palm with high-yielding, disease-resistant, and dwarf statured varieties is imperative. The National Mission on Edible Oil-Oil Palm has set a target area of 27,99,087 hectares, but the achieved area is only 3,70,028 hectares (NMEO-OP). To meet this target, obtaining quality planting material is crucial. Traditionalvegetative propagation is not viable for oil palm due to its lack of axillary branching or axillary meristem. Given its highly cross-pollinated nature and long breeding cycle, obtaining true-to-type progeny is challenging. Therefore, the importance of propagation through in vitro mass multiplication techniques in this crop cannot be overstated.

The perennial nature of fruit crops coupled with high heterozygosity, protracted juvenility, and lack of information on inheritance patterns of important traits of economic significance is responsible for slow progress in breeding of fruit crops. Citrus is one of the most popular fruit crops cultivated in around 140 countries of the world mainly in the Asia-Pacific region. In Asia, citrus fruits are a major crop for the local people in meeting their nutritional requirements and livelihood. Citrus is cultivated as an indispensable cash crop both for domestic consumption and the export market. Recently, the citrus production has shown an increasing trend mainly attributed to its increased demand as a nutritious and healthy drink owing to the possession of many medicinal and antioxidant properties in its fruits.
The clonal selection has been used primarily as one of traditional breeding methods because bud sport mutations arise frequently in Citrus (Iwamasa et al., 1981; Uzun et al., 2004). This method of breeding generally offers many advantages to select clones suitable for their identified uses. Yield and fruit quality are the major targets of breeding and both these can be enhanced through clonal selection of natural mutants or seedlings. The major aim of the clonal selection studies is the selection of clones bearing regularly for many years, improved fruit appearance and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. In general, identifying the elite clones, testing them under different climatic conditions, and freeing them from the virus and virus-like pathogens carried by the mother plants are major steps involved in clonal selection (Ulubelde et al., 1986) for the improvement of fruit crops.

Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.), a subtropical perennial fruit tree, belongs to family Sapindaceae and is indigenous to China. Its cultivation spread to the neighbouring countries of the south-east Asian region and other countries. The fruit of litchi is small, heart-shaped, conical or spherical in shape and pinkish red to bright-red in colour, with varying colour intensity in different cultivars. The pulp of fruit is crispy and grape-like in texture, very succulent and aromatic and is generally characterized by a sweet, acid, juicy and soft taste. Because of these reasons, litchi is highly prized in its fresh form as well as in different processed formulations. The total litchi production is about 24,00,000 tonnes from the net cultivated are of about 8,00,000 ha. The main litchi-producing countries are China, India and Thailand, whereas it is commercially grown also in many other countries. Of the total world litchi production, China and India contribute about 90%. Although litchi plants are long-lived, even then new plantings of this fruit are being done regularly, ensuring the continuous growth of production at the global level. In India, where this fruit can be grown in off season also in the southern states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, the litchi production is about 7,37,200 tonnes from an area of 99,170 ha (Chandrakala et al., 2023).
 

Probably since the beginning of human life on the planet, they have used local fruits and vegetables. For a long time, they have enjoyed the fruit of the wild trees without knowing how to successfully produce them. Such native fruit trees have many advantages. These trees have an extraordinary genetic diversity that can be exploited in breeding programs and genetic advancement of domestic varieties (Khadivi et al., 2020). Many indigenous fruits are still highly valuable, and the harvesting and selling of these forest fruits contribute significantly to the local economy of families in the area. The product collected from forest trees is completely healthy and in terms of quality, they may even be equal to “organic fruits”. In a most recently published book chapter entitled organic pomegranate production in Iran, compiled by Alizadeh and Varasteh (2024), wild pomegranates were considered as noble source of healthy food. Given the multifunctional, ubiquitous nature of wild edible fruits the present chapter was compiled to introduce wild fruit trees of northern Iran with a focus on providing more detailed information about wild pomegranates.
Geographical Aspects of Northern Iran Northern Iran
is a geographical region encompassing a relatively large and fertile area, located along the southern border of the Caspian Sea and the Alborz Mountains. Upon closer examination of the map of Iran (Fig. 1), one can identify three northern provinces: Golestan, Mazandaran, and Gilan. These provinces all share borders with the Caspian Sea and the Alborz Mountains. The Alborz mountain range extends from the western border with the Republic of Azerbaijan to the eastern border with Turkmenistan (Fig.1).

A family of 56 genera and over 1,300 species, Zingiberaceae are distributed in tropical regions, chiefly in Indomalaysia. About 17 genera and over 115 species have been reported from India, chiefly in Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas. Some largely represented genera along with number of their world over reported species are Alpinia (250), Amomum (150), Costus (150), Zingiber (90), Kaempferia (70), Curcuma (60), Hedychium (50), Globba (50) and Elettaria (7).
Selected Indian Genera
Alpinia, Amomum, Costus, Curcuma, Elettaria, Hedychium, Zingiber.
Economic Importance
1. Spices and condiments: Seeds of Amomum cardamom (Badi elayachi) and Elettaria cardamomum (true cardamom), roots of Alpinia officinarum (gangal root) and rhizomes of A. gangala (Siamese ginger), Curcuma longa (turmeric) and Zingiber officinalis (ginger) are used as spices, condiments and flavouring agents. Ginger oil, obtained from rhizomes of Z. officinalis, is used in perfumery and for medicinal purposes. Turmeric is also used for medicinal purposes.

A family of about 23 genera and 800 species, Violaceae are distributed in both tropical and temperate regions. Only three genera (Hybanthus, Vahila and Viola) have been reported from India. Famous pansies, violas and violets belong to this family. Some of the larger genera with their approximate number of species in parenthesis include Viola (500), Rinorea (340) and Hybanthus (150). Majority of Indian Violaceae are found in Himalayas and hills of
southern and western India.
Garden pansy is an annual or perennial herb planted in flower beds worldwide owing to its pretty shape and contrasting colour markings, looking like a butterfly. It is called as ‘King of annuals’. In horticultural industry, there are variety of forms, sizes, and shapes of pansies which are employed for landscape planting, garden design, and container gardening. With the advent of F1 hybrids, pansies are known as high quality bedding plants. Dried flowers of Viola odorata Vern. are used against cough, influenza, and lung troubles while oil obtained from flowers is used in perfumes and flavourings.
Selected Indian Genera and Species
• Except for garden favourites, such as pansies, violas and violets, the family is of little economic importance. Over 100 species of Viola, are being grown as ornamental plants.

A family of about 86 genera and 3,000 species distributed chiefly in tropics and sub-tropics. About 22 genera and over 30 species have been reported from India. Some of the genera along with their number of approximately reported species and common names of them are Clerodendron (400, glory-flower), Verbena (250, vervain), Vitex (250, chaste tree), Lippia (220, Frogfruit), Lantana (150), Callicarpa (140, beauty-berry), Stachytarpheta (100) and Tectona (3, teak).
Verbena is popular ornamental plant suitable for flower gardens, hanging baskets, and balcony boxes. They are excellent both as ground cover for rockeries, and as bedding types. These plants abundantly flower in the seedin year and, thus, are grown as annual plants.
Selected Indian Genera
Clerodendron, Duranta, Lantana, Tectona, Verbena, Vitex.
Economic Importance
1. Timber yielding plants: Teak, one of the most famous timber-yielding plants of the world, belongs to Verbenaceae. It is used for high quality furnitures, heavy constructions, ship building, musical instruments and several other similar purposes. Some other timber-yielding plants are Gmelina arborea, Premna benghalensis and Vitex altissima.

A family of about 90 genera and 3,000 species distributed in both tropical and temperate regions. Central and South America are the chief centres of distribution where over 40 genera are found. About 15 genera and over 90
species have been reported from India. Some of the larger genera along with their approximately world over reported species (Hickey and King, 1988) are Solanum (1700), Cestrum (150), Physalis (100), Lycium (80-90), Nicotiana (66), Capsicum (50), Petunia (40), Hyoscyamus (20) and Datura (10). Solanum tuberosum (potato) and Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) are the two most utilized plants of Solanaceae.
Petunias, popular bedding plants, with variety of forms, sizes and shapes are employed for landscape planning, garden designs and container gardening. The numerous phenotypes viz., Grandifloras, Multifloras, Millifloras, Waves, Hedgifloras, etc. are complex hybrids. The outstanding marketable series of P. x hybrida have been developed for upright, spreading and semi-trailing to trailing habits.
Selected Indian Genera
Atropa, Capsicum, Cestrum, Datura, Nicotiana, Petunia, Physalis, Solanum, Withania.

Represented by about 65 genera and 1,730 species, Scrophulariaceae are cosmopolitan in their distribution. About 60 genera and 360 species have been reported from India, chiefly from the Himalayas. Some of the genera along with their approximately reported species from world over are Pedicularis (500), Calceolaria (300-400), Scrophularia (300), Verbascum (300), Veronica (300), Penstemon (280, Linaria (150), Castilleja (150), Selago (150), Sutera (130), Mimulus (100), Antirrhinum (40) and Digitalis (20). The common names of the family (snapdragons, foxglove or figwort family) are because of its genera Antirrhinum (snapdragons), Digitalis (foxglove) and Scrophularia (figwort).
Selected Indian Genera
Antirrhinum, Digitalis, Linaria, Lindenbergia, Mazus, Verbascum, Veronica.
Economic Importance
1. Ornamental plants: Include Angelonia angustifolia, Antirrhinum majus (snapdragon), Calceolaria scabiosaefolia (slipperwort), Castilleja (Indian paintbrush), Chelone glabra (turtlehead), Collinsia grandiflora, Digitalis purpurea (foxglove), Linaria vulgaris (toadflax), Mimulus luteus (monkey flower), Nemesia versicolor (Nemesia), Paulownia tomentosa, Pedicularis canadensis (housewort), Russelia juncea (coral blow), Torenia asiatica and Veronica bungifolia (speedwell).

A family of about 611 genera and 13,150 species, Rubiaceae are chiefly distributed in tropics, but some are distributed in temperate or even arctic regions. About 75 genera and 275 species have been reported from India, chiefly in tropical and sub-tropical eastern Himalayas. Some of the largely represented genera with their approximately reported species (Hickey and King, 1988) include Psychotria (700), Galium (400), Ixora (400), Gardenia (250), Mussaenda (200), Asperula (200), Cephaelis (180), Rondeletia (120), Coprosoma (90), Guettarda (80), Rubia (60), Coffea (40) and Cinchona (40). Two most important plants of the family are Coffea arabica (coffee-yielding plant) and species of Cinchona (quinine-yielding plant).
Economic Importance of Selected Genera and Species
Some of the common ornamental plants grown in gardens and roadsides include Anthocephalus cadamba (Kadam), Cephalanthus occidentalis, Galium verum (Ladies Bedstraw), Gardenia jasminoides (Jasmine), Hamelia patens, Hamiltonia suaveolens (Padera), Ixora arborea, I. coccinia, Morinda tinctoria, M. frondosa, M. luteola, Pentas lanceolatea and Rondeletia.

A family of approximately 91 genera and 4,828 species which are cosmopolitan in distribution but particularly abundant in Eastern Asia, North America and Europe. About 25 genera and 230 species of Rosaceae have so far been reported from India. Some of the largely represented genera along with their common names and approximately reported species include Potentilla (Cinquefoil, 500), Prunus (peach, plum, almond, cherry, apricot, 430), Rosa (Rose, 250), Rubus (Raspberry, blackberry, 250), Alchemilla (250), Crataegus (Hawthorn, 200), Sorbus (Chokeberry, 250), Acaena (100) and Spirea (100). Named after the universally famous flowering plant, rose, the Rosaceae show great diversity in types of fruit (Fig. 48.1).
Roses, universally acclaimed as the ‘queen of flowers’, have played major role in human culture and artistry from ancient times. Among the ornamentals, roses occupy very important position both as garden plants and cut flowers for their beauty and fragrance. This unique position is attributed to great amount of variation in flowers and plant characteristics as well as their wide adaptability to varied agro-ecological conditions. Damask rose (R. damascena) and Edouard rose (R. bourboniana) are cultivated for extraction of essence, rose attar or rose oil, otto and other products, gulkand, gulab jal and pankhuri from petals. Rose oil has a significant place as an ingredient in pharmaceutical preparations viz., ointments, lotions, perfumes, creams and soaps and in food products including beverages, baked foods, puddings and frozen dairy desserts. Characteristics of damask rose oil as anti-HIV, anti-bacterial and anti-oxidant have been established.

This family is represented by about 62 genera and 2,252 species, chiefly distributed in the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Eastern Asia and eastern North America are the regions of their most common occurrence. The common genera, of which over 150 or more species have so far been reported, include Ranunculus (400), Aconitum (300), Delphinium (250), Clematis (250), Anemone (150) and Thalictrum (150). Some species occur in Arctic and Alpine zones. However, they are rare in tropics. Twenty genera and over 165 species of this family have so far been reported from India. Plants of this family flower mainly during winter in our country. Selected Indian Genera and Species
• Ornamentals: Many Ranunculaceae have showy flowers and are grown as ornamentals in gardens. Some of such ornamentals are Aconitum napellus (aconite), Anemone parviflora (wind flower), Aquilegia coerulea (columbine), Caltha palustris (Marsh marigold), Clematis virginiana (traveller’s joy), Delphinium ajacis (larkspur), Helleborus (Christmas rose), Nigella damascena (love-in-a-mist), Paeonia emodi (Peony), Ranunculus aquatilis, R. seleratus (cedery peaved crow foot).

Primrose family is represented by about 58 genera and 2,600 species which are cosmopolitan but chiefly distributed in northern hemisphere. Some of the
larger genera with their approximately reported species include Primula (500), Lysimachia (200), Dodecatheon (50), Dionysia (41), Anagallis (30), Cyclamen (15), Salomus and Soldanella (11).
Selected Indian Genera
Primula, Anagallis, Androsace, Cyclamen, Primula.
Economic Importance
The family is of no specific economic importance except that of some well known decorative plants it contains. Some species of Primula may cause contact dermatitis. Anagallis arvensis is used for curing snakebite, leprosy, gout and even hydrophobia. Cyclamen purpurascence contains glucoside cyclamen which is poisonous. Some of the commonly cultivated ornamental plants of Primulaceae are the species of Primula (primrose), Androsace (rock jasmine), Cyclamen (Fig. 46.1), Dodecatheon (shooting star), Douglasia, Lysimachia (Loosestrile) and Omphalogramma.

A family of 183 genera and over 2,600 species distributed widely in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world and a few also in warm, temperate regions. About 28 genera and over 95 species have been reported from India. Chief genera along with the number of their total reported species and the common names of them are Calamus (300, cane palm), Chamaedorea (130), Areca (54, betel nut plam), Coccothrinax (50, Biscayne palm), Copernicia (30, wax palm), Raphia (30, wine palm), Sabal (25, cabbage palm), Phoenix (17, date palm), Roystonea (17, Royal palm), Metroxylon (15, sago palm), Phytelephas (15, ivory-nut palm), Caryota (12, fish-tail palm), Elaeis (2, oil
palm) and Cocos (1, coconut palm). Selected Indian Genera Araca, Borassus, Calamus, Cocos, Nypa, Phoenix.
Economic Importance
Palm family, supposed to be second in importance to Poaceae, is used for food, oils, shelter, coconuts, copra, dates, clothing, etc. As many as 801 uses of only Borassus flabellifer have been mentioned in one ancient Tamil song. Cocos nucifera (coconut Fig. 45.2) is another such plant of this family whose almost every part of entire plant body is utilized in some ways or other, i.e.

Orchidaceae is one of the largest families of the flowering plants, represented by about 1,000 genera and 20,000 species which are cosmopolitan but primarily distributed in tropical areas. They are found in all parts of the world, even in the frozen areas of Alaska, the snow-covered areas of the Himalayas and sandy deserts of Australia and Africa. New Guinea has more orchids, native to the island, than any other part of the world. In Indian flora, this is the second largest family having 7% of the world’s orchid genetic diversity contributing 1,330 species in 186 genera distributed mainly in Eastern Himalayas, Western Ghats and Khasi hills. Indian orchid wealth serves as a foundation of world’s orchid industry. The North-Eastern hilly regions of India, Himalayas being the cradle, comprises eight states- Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura- is the abode of unique orchids. Many are now endangered due to man’s invasion and “burn and grow” type of shifting cultivation. Arunachal Pradesh alone accounts for 601 species, almost 52% of the total species known in India. Arunachal’s rich and colourful orchids find a place of pride. Arunachal Pradesh is called the ‘Orchid Paradise of India’. The entire orchid family with about 601 species in Arunachal Pradesh is classified into six sub-families, 17 tribes, 24 sub-tribes and 111 genera. Vanda is found as epiphyte on mango and other trees in the plains. Aerides is found in southern and northern parts of India, Burma, Malaya and Indonesia, Vanda spp. is common in India, Sri Lanka, South East Asia and Indonesia. Calanthe spp. have a wide range from China, Japan, Vietnam to Australia, Southern parts of India and South Africa. The striking Cattleya spp. are found only in South America. Coelogyne, a genus of considerable horticultural value, is mostly represented in Nepal and Sikkim but several species are found in Bhutan and upper Myanmar, China, South-East Asia, the Philippines and Fiji. About 20% of recorded Indian taxa are endemic. Dendrobium peguanum is a rare species, Rhizanthella gardneri is endemic to Western Australia which grows underground and Phaius tankervilliae (Nun’s orchid of Assam; 2n= 50) is also an endangered orchid. India has two conservation and germplasm centers at Shillong in Meghalaya and Yercaud in Tamil Nadu. Asia’s largest orchidarium is situated at Tipi, Arunachal Pradesh while orchids sanctuary is situated at Sikkim.

A family of approximately 29 genera and 600 species, Oleaceae are cosmopolitan but occur in great diversity in temperature and tropical Asia. Some of the largely represented genera of olive family and their approximately
reported species are Jasminum (300), Chionanthus (125), Linociera (80), Fraxinus (70), Ligustrum (40), Syringa (30) and Olea (20).
Genus Jasminum contains 90 species to be true in existence and use, range from landscape to hair adornments, and perfumes. It is native to Indo-Malayan region. Morphological variants from different species have been developed in different regions in India. Jasmines are one of the most important ornamental flowering plants, widely cultivated for their attractive and fragrant flowers. Jasmine has multiple uses like in the making of bouquets, garlands, decorating women’s hair as veni, beautifying pandals and marriage halls and the like, besides preparation of perfumes and cosmetics. Jasminum grandiflorum is highly priced for high grade perfumes throughout the world. Jasmine oil has a significant place as an ingredient in cosmetics, confectionary, ointments, disinfectants and detergents and in pharmaceutical beverages. The word ‘jasmine’ has been derived from a Persian name ‘Yasmun’ meaning fragrance.

This family of sub-class polypetalae is represented by only 5 genera and over 70 species. Members are cosmopolitan in distribution, except in very cold regions, and are favorite plants for garden pools. Plants are mostly ornamental, few are medicinal or edible. Flowers of water lily are variously coloured and open just above the water surface in ponds while that of crow lily (Nuphar) are golden yellow and extend up and out of the water in the pond. Nymphaea nouchali is the Indian red water-lily. Victoria regia is a native of South America. Genus Nymphaea attained wide spread fame as ornamentals in Europe and North America in the early 19th century. Word ‘Nympha’ in Greek and in Roman mythology means ‘Nature-goddess’. Nymphacine is an alkaloid present in all parts except seeds and contain 47% starch and fatty oils. Flowers are used as cardiac tonic to relieve pains and cures diseases of liver and skin and rhizomes are used in tannin industry, seeds for culinary purposes and leaves as dining plates. Dried rhizome powder is used to cure piles.
Among the few bulbous ornamentals which survive only in water, one of them is water lily. Water lilies constitute an important element in tropical aquatic ornamental horticulture because of their strikingly beautiful flowers with wide spectrum of colours. Its flowers are very formal in shape and rather more attractive than lotus. Many are fragrant and there is great variation even in size of the flowers and leaves. Unripe fruits of Nymphaea rubra are used as vegetables and flowering stalks as vegetables and salad. Rhizomes are used in tannin industry and seeds for culinary purposes. Leaves are used as dining plates. Nymphacine alkaloid is available in all parts of the plant except the seeds which are free from this alkaloid and contain 47 per cent starch and fatty oils. Rhizomes of N. stellata are edible and also used to relieve cardiac pains. Rhizomes of N. nouchali are used to cure dysentery and diarrhoea. The vegetable ‘kamal kakri’ is actually the rhizome of N. nouchali.

A family of over 33 genera and 391 species, Nyctaginaceae are distributed mainly in tropics, but also in South America particularly Brazil, Asia, Ecuador, Peru, Columbia, Australia, Africa and New Zealand are the chief centers of distribution. Presently, bougainvilleas are popular ornamental plants in warm climates including India, Taiwan, Vietnam, Malaysia, Australia, Mediterranean region, the Caribbean, Mexico, South Africa, and the United States in Arizona, California, Florida, Hawaii, and southern Texas. Some of the largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their world over reported species are Bougainvillea (300), Mirabilis (60) and Pisonia (50). The C3 physiology recorded directly in Bougainvillea, Mirabilis.
Bougainvillea is a versatile and hardy climbing shrub commonly grown in Indian gardens. It is a short day plant. C3 and C4 photosynthesis is reported in bougainvillea cv. Mary Palmer. It is a fast growing garden plant admired for its brightly coloured bracts, profuse flowering round the year, wide adaptability to soil and climatic conditions, and easy growing. It is, grown as hedge, pergola, standard, pot plant, and bonsai for display. In city designs, newer roads, and flyovers are introduced with bougainvilleas as dividers. Bougainvilleas also have been utilized as a kind of folk medicine developed into dietary supplements as insulin substitute and for pollution tolerance. The insulin like compound, pinitol, was first isolated from leaves of B. spectabilis.

This family of sub-class polypetalae is represented by only single genera and three species. Members are cosmopolitan in distribution, except in very cold regions, and are favorite plants for garden pools. Nelumbo lotus are the ‘sacred lotus’ plants of the family. Indian lotus, found commonly in shallow lakes and pods, is Nelumbo nucifera. Nelumbo, genus of aquatic angiosperms belong to monogeneric family Nelumbonaceae is represented by two elemental species N. nucifera and N. lutea. The 1st fossil record available with Pleistocene epoch of Kashmir.The NBRI, Lucknow acts as a biodiversity conservation centre.
Among the few bulbous ornamentals which survive only in water, one of them is lotus.N.aureavallis, known from Eocene fossils from North Dakota, USA is an extinct species from USA. Nearly all parts are edible. Leaves are used for wrapping around other food before it is cooked. Stalks are sliced & added to salad. Flowers are cultivated for ornamental value, religious offerings, environment beautification, water purification, besides for food, Chinese traditional medicine & yield valuable perfume. Flowers recommended as cardiac tonic and used in curing diseases of liver, skin. Its dried and powdered rhizomes are used to cure piles. Due to its astringent qualities, rhizome is known for its hypoglycemic, anti-pyretic, anti-diarrheal, anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory activity. It possesses anti-fungal activity against Aspergillus, Trichoderma, and Penicilium. Many traditional ancient medical texts report its use for skin conditions, notably ring worms & leprosy, sexually transmitted diseases such as gonorrhea and syphilis. Milky latex found in stems, leaves and flowers is used to fight bacterial infections. Lotus has been found to have 77% anti-oxidant activity. Swollen rhizome of vegetable lotus is used in culinary preparations. The roasted seeds are used as a substitute to coffee. Seeds are ground to obtain almond-flavoured flour. Seed pods (fresh or dried) are used in dry flower arrangement. Bhasinda is an underground stem i.e. rhizomes are edible as raw or cooked in northern parts of India.

A family of about 150 genera and 3,800-5650 species, distributed mainly in sub-tropical and tropical regions of the world. Family is particularly abundant in Australia where some Eucalyptus trees are world’s tallest angiosperms. Myrtaceae is represented in India by about 15 genera and over 170 species. Beautiful pinkish flowers of Myrtus communis are considered highly sacred among Greeks, Egyptians, Jews and Persians, and used in religious rites and ceremonies. Some of the larger genera of Myrtaceae along with their number of reported species include Eugenia (1000), Eucalyptus (500), Syzygium (500), Myrcia (500), Psidium (140), Myrtus (100) and Melaleuca (100).
Eucalyptus spp. produce important components of medicinal and pharmaceutical applications. Economic parts are leaves and terminal buds-along with trunk. Lemon scented/ Tasmanian (E. globulus) is high in cineol content. Deodorant is manufactured besides utilization of oil for asthma, bronchitis, perfumery, etc. Phellandrene rich type, E. citridora (most widely grown in hill stations of southern parts of India). The source of citronellal and menthol from leaves and terminal buds is famous for perfumery industries.

A family of about 244 genera and 4,225 species, Malvaceae are distributed widely in tropical and temperate regions. About 22 genera and 125 species of Malvaceae have so far been reported from India. Some of the larger
genera, along with their common names and/or number of reported species in parenthesis, include Hibiscus (rose mallow, 300), Sida (200), Abutilon (Indian mallow, 100), Alcea (60), Malva (mallow, 40), Lavatera (25), Gossypium (cotton, 20) and Althaea (12). The family is recognized by Hibiscus rosasinensis (Rose of China) because of its beautiful large flowers and hundreds of its known cultivated varieties.
Hibiscus commonly called as ‘Chinese hibiscus’ or ‘Rose of China’ or ‘Hawaiian hibiscus’ or ‘Blacking plant’ or ‘Shoe flower’ is a flowering plant of hot and warm climate, and hence, known as ‘Queen of Tropics’. Florida is the
prominent hibiscus growing centre of the world. The commercial species have wide variety of uses including fibers, food, medicinal and ornamental, either as a potted plant, fence or hedge plant or as a landscape shrub. Ethno medicinal value of hibiscus is documented

Named after a French botanist Pierre Magnol, Magnoliaceae is a family of about 7 genera and 300 species, mainly distributed in the warm temperature regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The species are common in eastern Asia and eastern North America, and found also in Brazil, West Indies, and Malaysia.
Description of family
1) General habit: Deciduous or evergreen, often aromatic shrubs or trees; Liriodendron tulipifera reaches 20 to 65 m in height; Michelia and Magnolia are medium sized trees or shrubs; Schizandra is a climber.
2) Leaves: Alternate, large, simple, entire, petiolate, pinnately-veined; stipulate, stipules large, protect young buds and leave a circular scar on falling; stipules absent in Wintereae; oil glands present.
3) Inflorescence: Flowers usually solitary, either axillary or terminal; flowers crowded near the tips of the branches in Illicium.
4) Flowers: Large, showy, bracteate (Magnolia, Michelia) or ebracteate, pedicellate, bisexual but rarely unisexual flowers while other have bisexual flowers.

A family of about 15 genera and 705 species showing cosmopolitan distribution. About 35 genera and over 195 species have been reported from India. Some of the largely represented genera along with the number of their world over reported species are Smilax (350), Aloe (300), Asparagus (300), Dracaena (150). Ornithogalum (150), Haworthia (150), Tulipa (100), Fritillaria (85), Lilium (80), Colchicum (65), Sansevieria (60), Yucca (40), Asphodelus (12) and Ruscus (7).
Lilium is a bulbous ornamental plant commonly known as lily. The flowers are associated with religious feasts and symbolism. In the language of flowers, the lily is the symbol of purity, and innocence. It is one of the sixth major genera of flower bulbs produced worldwide. Lilium ranks 4th among cut flower trade in international market. Certain species of Lilium are edible, and valued for medicinal properties also.
Tulip is one of the most important bulbous geophytes in the world and popular due to its beauty and economic value. It is the top rated flower bulb in the international cut flower market. Modern tulip cultivars, predominantly T. gesneriana, are grown for bulb production, cut flowers, flowering potted plants, and landscaping. The current commercial assortment still consists mainly of cultivars from T. gesneriana. The second group of cultivars, the Darwin hybrids consists has been obtained from interspecific crosses between cultivars T. gesneriana and genotypes of T. fosteriana. Tulipa suaveolens, a kind of tulip discovered wild in southern Europe, has played an important role in the evolution of the garden tulip (Bailey, 1963).

A family of about 236 genera and 7,200 species, Labiatae are cosmopolitan in their distribution and their chief centre is the Mediterranean region. About 65 genera and over 400 species have been reported from India, mainly distributed in North Western parts of India and southern parts of India. Some largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their worldover reported species and common names of some of them are Salvia (500-700, sage), Hyptis (400), Thymus (300-400, thyme), Teucrium (300, germander), Stachys (300), Scutellaria (200, skullcap), Coleus (200, Jacob’s coat), Ocimum (150, basil), Nepeta (150, catnip), Lavendula (28, lavender), Mentha (25, mint) and Rosmarinus (3, rosemary).
Salvia is a tender herbaceous annual or perennial plant and cultivated as bedding plant in many countries. Owing to its adaptability, self sowing ability and handsome appearance, it has been introduced and commanded all over the world. Salvia species have long history of utilization as medicinal herbs. The therapeutic value of this crop is widely recognized in traditional Chinese medicine for various ailments. Some species are strongly aromatic having
horticultural, commercial and medicinal values.

A family of about 236 genera and 7,200 species, Labiatae are cosmopolitan in their distribution and their chief centre is the Mediterranean region. About 65 genera and over 400 species have been reported from India, mainly distributed in North Western parts of India and southern parts of India. Some largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their worldover reported species and common names of some of them are Salvia (500-700, sage), Hyptis (400), Thymus (300-400, thyme), Teucrium (300, germander), Stachys (300), Scutellaria (200, skullcap), Coleus (200, Jacob’s coat), Ocimum (150, basil), Nepeta (150, catnip), Lavendula (28, lavender), Mentha (25, mint) and Rosmarinus (3, rosemary).
Salvia is a tender herbaceous annual or perennial plant and cultivated as bedding plant in many countries. Owing to its adaptability, self sowing ability and handsome appearance, it has been introduced and commanded all over the world. Salvia species have long history of utilization as medicinal herbs. The therapeutic value of this crop is widely recognized in traditional Chinese medicine for various ailments. Some species are strongly aromatic having
horticultural, commercial and medicinal values.

A family of about 66 genera and over 2,244 species, Iridaceae are distributed in both tropical and temperate regions with the chief centres of distribution in tropical America and South Africa. Chief areas of distribution in India are Kashmir, and Kumanon hills. Common species cultivated in Indian gardens include Belamcanda chinensis, Crocus sativus, C. biflorus, C. speciosa, Gladiolus primulinus, G. colvillei, Freesia refracta, Iris kumaonensis, I. germanica and I. foetidissima. Iridaceae are cultivated throughout the world for their beautiful flowers.
Gladiolus ‘the queen of bulbous flowers’ is one of the most important bulbous ornamentals grown commercially in all parts of the world for its attractive flowers. It is very much liked for its majestic spikes containing attractive,
elegant and delicate florets which open in sequence over a long duration and hence, has good keeping quality of cut spikes. These are extensively employed as cut flower in herbaceous borders, individual beds in the gardens, for exhibition, as pot plants for various kinds of interior decoration and for making bouquets. North American Gladiolus Council, Boston established in 1910 (www.gladworld.org), and New England Gladiolus Society (www.britglad. com), came into existence during post war era (1945-55), are actively involved in popularization and improvement of gladiolus in tune with flourishing cut flower trade in western countries.

Geraniaceae is a family of about 7 genera and 830 species which are
cosmopolitan in distribution and found widely in temperate and tropical regions.
Only 3 genera and about 25 species have been reported from India, mainly
from Himalayas. Some of the larger genera along with their approximately
reported species in parenthesis include Geranium (430), Pelargonium (280),
Erodium (80) and Monsonia (25). Well-known ‘geranium oil’ is distilled from
Pelargonium odoratissinum.
Pelargonium (syn. Geraniums, Stork bills) is an extremely popular garden
plant and has considerable economic importance in the market of ornamental
plants. Its genotypes and hybrids are grown in temperate regions. Its value as a
potential essential oil yielding crop is also mentioned. Geranium oil is widely
used in perfumery, cosmetics, pharmaceutical, and food industries. Oil has
anti-microbial, and pesticidal activities. The genus Pelargonium comprises
more than 280 species in 13 sections of which 33 have been originated in
southern parts of South Africa (Van der Walt and Vorster, 1988). It has been
reported that nearly 80 per cent diversity of Pelargoniums is centered in Cape
Province if African continent (South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique).
Pelargoniums are popular seed and vegetatively propagated bedding and
pot plants with numerous phenotypes (Fish type, Ivy leaved, Regal, Angels,
Fancy leaves, Scented, Oak leaf) and cultivars (Double/ Bar/ Centre/ Ring/
Vein/ Picotee pattern/ Tulip/ Carnation/ Phlox/ Birds egg flowered) available
on the world market. True geranium is a bushy, aromatic plant. The stem is
cylindrical, woody at the base, pubescent, green when young and turning
brown with age. The leaves are highly aromatic in nature. Flowers are regular
and devoid of spur like appendages.

A family of over 322 genera and 8,900 species, Euphorbiaceae is closely related to Sterculiaceae of the Malvales through the various degrees of the union of stamens and the presence of the pistillode and staminode in the male and female flowers, respectively. They are distributed mainly in tropics, but also in Mediterranean region, Australia and USA. Some of the largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their world over reported species are Euphorbia (2000), Croton (700), Phyllanthus (500), Acalypha (430), Japtropha (175), Manihot (170).
Selected Indian Genera
Acalypha, Codiaeum, Euphorbia, Hevea, Jatropha, Mallotus, Manihot, Phyllanthus, Poinsettia, Putranjiva, Ricinus.
Economic Importance
1. Fruits of Emblica officinalis are rich in vitamins, medicinal and also used for tanning.
2. Garden croton (Codiaeum variegatum) with variegated leaves, poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima Fig. 32.1, Fig. 32.3) with beautiful red bracts, Acalypha sanderiana, A. tricolor and Pedilanthus tithymaloides (Jew’s slipper), Putranjiva roxburghii (Child life tree) are used as ornamental purpose; Jatropha gossypifolia is commonly grown as hedge; Manihot esculenta (tapioca) yield valuable starchy food; Manihot utillissima (bitter cassava); Manihot alpe (sweet cassava); Manihot glaziovii yields ceara rubber; Hevea brasiliensis yields para rubber; fruits of Mallotus philippinensis yields a crimson powder used for dyeing silk, etc.

This cosmopolitan family of about 375 genera and over 4,060 species, occur chiefly in north temperate regions, especially in the Mediterranean region. About 50 genera and over 140 species have so far been reported from India. Some of the larger genera, along with their reported number of species from the world in parenthesis, include Draba (300), Cardamine (160), Lepidium (150), Alyssum (150), Arabis (120), Erysimum (100), Sisymbrium (90), Heliophila (75), Rorippa (70), Iberis (30) and Raphanus (8). Majority of Crucifers produce an abundance of vitamin C. Characteristic pungent odour of its members is because of sulphur compounds.
Selected Indian Genera and Species
• Vegetables: Several common vegetables of daily use belong to this family. Some of them are radish (Raphanus sativus), cauliflower (B. oleracea var. botrytis), Brussel’s sprout (B. oleracea var. gemmifera), sengri (B. sativus var. caudatus), etc.
• Oils: Fatty oil, used for cooking, pickles, bruning, massaging, etc. is obtained from the seeds of several species of this family. Mustard oil is obtained from several species of Brassica such as B. campestris var. sarson and B. campestris var. toria (Indian rape). Oil is also obtained from the seeds of B. juncea var. cuneifolia (Rai), B. alba (white mustard). The oil cake left after the extraction of oil, is a good cattle feed.

Family Combretaceae contains about 20 genera and 600 species distributed mainly in the tropical and sub-tropical countries of the world (Rahate et al., 2019). Eight genera and about 45 species of this family have been reported from India, chiefly from Assam and West Bengal. Combretum and Terminalia are two largest genera of the family. Lumnitzera littoria is found as a mangrove plant in Sundanban and other tidal forests of India.
Terminalia bellirica is tall tree and leaves clustered near ends of branches. Flowers are small, pale green, arise in simple spikes. Fruit is ovoid, 3 cm long, brownish & densely covered with hairs and contains 5-17 per cent tannins. Unripe fruit is used as astringent but ripe fruit is purgative. Fruit powder is used as tonic & laxative and useful in piles, leprosy, dropsy and fever. Fruit of T. chebula is astringent and laxative. Roasted fruits are used to treat cough, chronic ulcer, wounds & scalds, used in dyeing and tanning purposes, fruit decoction is used in bleeding and ulceration of gums
Description of Family
1. General habit: A family of exclusively arborescent taxa, consisting of tall trees or woody twiners of lianas, such as Combretum and Quisqualis.
2. Stem: Solid with large mucilaginous sacs and abundant tannin.
3. Leaves: Simple, alternate or sometimes opposite (Quisqualis); exstipulate; margin entire.

It is a monotypic or unigeneric family represented by four genera containing about 91 species distributed mainly in north-east Australia and also in Fiji, New Caledonia, Malaysia and Mascarene islands. Only one species (Casuarina equisetifolia) occurs in India, and this is the most common species of the world.
Selected Genera
Casuarina, Gymnostoma, Allocasuarina, Ceuthostoma.
Economic Importance
Casuarina is important mainly as timber tree. The wood of C. equisetifolia, C. cunningbamia and C. stricta is used for furniture, for fuel and also for basket making. The bark of C. suberosa and C. stricta is utilized for tanning. C. equisetifolia is usually grown as an ornamental and also in order to reclaim sandy dunes in India and several countries.

It is represented by about 100 genera and over 2,200 species which are either annual or perennial, Caryophyllaceae are cosmopolitan in distribution, and mainly found in the north temperate or warm temperate regions of the world. Over 20 genera and about 100 species have so far been reported from India. Some of the larger genera, along with their common names and number of species in parenthesis include Silene (catchfly, 500), Dianthus (carnation, 300), Arenaria (sandwort, 250), Gypsophila (baby’s breath, 125), Stellaria (chickweed, 100), Cerastium (mouse-ear chickweed, 100), Drymaria (50), Spergula (40), Saponaria (30), etc.
Carnation, commonly named as ‘Divine flower’, ‘Clove pink’, and ‘Gilly flower’, is one of the most beautiful and commercially important flower crops of the world. It is excellent for cut flowers, bedding, pots, edging and rock gardens due to its exquisite shape, wide range of colours, light weight and good vase life. In Europe and USA, perpetual carnation is cultivated on large scale in greenhouses for production of cut flowers. In terrain parts of France and Holland, carnation flowers are used for perfume extraction and only light coloured flowers are useful for this purpose.
Description of Family
1. General habit: Mostly annual or perennial herbs, rarely suffrutescent shrubs; arctic forms are reduced and possess caespitose habit.
2. Stem: Herbaceous; rarely with a basal woody part; nodes swollen; branching usually dichotomous but sometimes monopodial.

Cacti are eulogized as ‘Plants of 21st century’. They have gained popularity due to many exciting shapes, blooms, ease of culture and long life without least care. Cacti are categorized as fleshy stem succulent with photo-synthetically active stem. Good for indoor decoration in pot, outdoor decoration, landscaping, public garden, rock garden, etc.
The family Cactaceae includes approximately 131 genera and 1,750 species. But different authors mention the number of genera differently between 30 to 200. Members are distributed chiefly in semi-desert or drier regions of tropical and sub-tropical America, and also in Africa, Mauritius, Seychelles, India, Sri Lanka and Australia. Mainly the Cactaceae are the succulents of New World. Main species of Old World is Rhipsalis. Some of the larger genera along with their number of reported species are Mammillaria (200-300), Opuntia (250), Echinocereus (75), Rhipsalis (60), Cereus (50), Cephalcereus (48), Echinopsis (35), Epiphyllum (21) and Pereskia (20).
The classification of the family Cactaceae remains uncertain as of August 2023. Since the mid-1990s, the system produced by the International Cactaceae Systematics Group (ICSG) of the International Organization for Succulent Plant Study has been used as the basis of many published classifications. Hunt (2006) recognized Cactaceae family has 4 sub-families viz. Pereskioideae (the leaf cactus, 20 spp.), Opuntioideae (300 spp.), Cactoideae (1,000 spp.) and Maihuenioideae (2 spp.). Three tribes: Pereskieae, Opuntieae, Cereae. Tribe Cereae has 8 sub-tribes: Cereanae, Hylocereanae, Echinocereanae, Echiocactanae, Cactanae, Coryphanthanae, Epiphyelanae, Rhipsolidanae. The cacti of sub-tribe ‘Echinocereanae’ are commonly known as ‘Hedgehogs’.

Represented by about 120 genera and over 800 species. Bignoniaceae are distributed mainly in tropical and sub-tropical, and a few in temperate regions. About 15 genera and 40 species are found in India. Some of the larger genera along with their approximate number of worldover reported species are Tabebuia (100), Arraabidaea (70), Jacaranda (50), Anemopaegma (30), Tecoma (16), Catalpa (11) and Crescentia (5).
Selected Indian Genera
Jacaranda, Kigelia, Millingtonia, Tecoma, Heterophragma, Oroxylum and Dolichandrone. Economic Importance
1. Ornamental plants of the family include handsome trees (Catalpa bignonioides, Haplophragma adenophyllum, Jacaranda mimosaefolia, (Fig. 26.1), Kigelia pinnata, Millingtonia hortensis, Spathodea campanulata and Tabebuia spectabilis), shrubs (Bignonia unguis-cati), beautiful tendril-climbers (Adenocalymna alliaceum, Bignonia venusta syn. Pyrostegia venusta), aerial rootlet climbers (Campis grandiflora and C. radicans) and herbaceous genus Incarvillea.

With the advent of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-associated protein9 (CRISPR/Cas9) genome editing, a fast and efficient new breeding technology, precision breeding in vegetable crops has become possible now. Several genes have been edited and functionally characterized using CRISPR/Cas9 in tomato for multiple traits such as plant type, floral morphology, fruit traits, disease resistance, and abiotic stress tolerance. The CRISPR/Cas9 has been proven in successful introgression of de novo domestication of elite traits from wild relatives to cultivated tomato. The progress in CRISPR/Cas9 based improvement in vegetable improvement, has been discussed.
Vegetables are an important source of healthy diet, as they provide essential nutrients including vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre, antioxidants and other phytochemicals. Dietary fiber-rich vegetables improve digestion, while also lowering the risk of obesity, diabetes, high cholesterol and heart disease (Behera et al., 2021). A world vegetable survey showed that around 392 vegetable crops are cultivated worldwide, representing 70 families and 225 genera. Over 97 species of higher plants are being cultivated and consumed as vegetables in India. These crops belong to 20 different families such as Cucurbitaceae (25 crops), Fabaceae (16 crops), Brassicaceae (12 crop) and Solanaceae (6 crops). The world’s total vegetables production was 1,155 million tonnes in 2021 where China ranks first with a total production of 600 million tonnes, accounting for 52.18% of the total world production. The top 5 countries (China, India, the United States of America, Turkey and Vietnam) account for 70.36% of total world’s production. As far as India is concerned,  it is the largest producer of ginger (2.23 million tonnes) and okra (6.47 million tonnes) in the world, while ranking 2nd in potato (54.23 million tonnes), dry onion (26.64 million tonnes), cauliflower and broccoli (9.25 million tonnes), brinjal (12.87 million tonnes) and cabbage (9.56 million tonnes) (FAO 2023).

Asteraceae or Compositae is one of the largest families of flowering plants, represented by about 1,707 genera and over 23,600 species which are worldwide in distribution. Radford (1986) has mentioned the number of genera to be ‘One thousand to 2000’. About 140 of its genera and over 700 species have been reported from India. Some of the largely represented genera include Senecio (2,000+), Eupatorium (1,200), Vernonia (1,000), Hieracium (1,000), Centaurea (600), Aster (500), Helichrysum (500), Cousinia (400), Artemisia (400), Baccharis (400), Mikania (250), Bidens (230), Crepis (200), Inula (200), Erigron (200), Chrysanthemum (160), Cirsium (150), Ligularia (150), Helianthus (110), Lactuca (100), Hypochoeris (100) and Carduus (100).
In the Chrysanthemum genus, the modern autumn flowering perennial Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat is most important. The name of C. morifolium Ramat has been changed to Dendranthema grandiflora Tzvelev (Anderson, 1987; Heywood and Humphries, 1977 and Kitamura, 1978). Chrysanthemum (D.x grandiflora) is an internationally recognized floriculture crop. It ranks second among commercial flowers in the international market. It is known as ‘Queen of East’ in Japan while in USA, it is considered as the ‘Queen of the fall flowers’. Flowers are in great demand in landascape, for making garland, wreath, veni and religious offerings. Pot chrysanthemums are
commonly known as ‘mums’ and large flowered cultivars are used as potted plants.

A family of 140 genera and over 4,075 species, Araceae are distributed mostly in tropical and some also in temperate regions of the world. About 25 genera and over 140 species have been reported from India, chiefly from western and southern parts. Some larger genera along with the number of their worldover reported species are Anthurium (500), Philodendron (275), Arisaema (150), Amorphophallus (100), Rhaphidophora (100), Pothos (75), Alocasia (70), Monstera (50), Arum (15), Colocasia (8), Acorus (2) and Pistia (1). Colocasia (Colocasia antiquorum) and ‘money plant’ (Pothos aureus) are two famous plants of Araceae.
Anthurium is a beautiful group of tropical aroids. It is cultivated globally for its attractive flowers and foliage. The flowering stalks have a long vase life and add an ethnic beauty to any floral decoration. Anthurium also called as ‘Flamingo flower’ or ‘Boy flower’, both referring to the structure of the spathe, and spadix. ‘Anthra’ is a worldwide knowledge center for the cultivation of anthurium, based on Holland and Germany. ‘Anthura’ performs activities in the field of research and development breeding, tissue culture technology, training and publishing cultivation know- how. ‘Anthura’ collaborates with research stations and test locations in Thailand, China, USA, Japan and India.

A family of about 400 genera and 4,555 species of mostly tropical and subtropical distribution, but a few species distributed also in temperature regions. About 30 genera and over 60 species of Apocynaceae have been reported from India. Some of the larger genera along with their approximately reported species in bracket are Rauvolfia (100), Tabernaemontana (100), Parsonsia (100), Aspidosperma (80), Prestonia (65), Strophanthus (60), Apocynum (7), Plumeria (6) and Catharanthus (5). Some plants are of medicinal value and some are highly ornamental.
Periwinkle (syn. Vinca) is grown as an ornamental bedding plant in gardens and parks and is known for its colourful flowers and ever-blooming nature. In India, it is commonly known as sada bahar, sada phuli, and barmasi. It is one of the top ten best selling plant in USA. Its importance has increased owing to medicinal properties and as a model species for study of plant’s secondary metabolism. The plant contains more than 70 different alkaloids in leaves and roots which contribute to anti-cancerous (vincristine and vinblastine) and antihypertensive (ajamalicine) properties, respectively.

Fruits contribute to nutritional security and thus are an important part of food system. To meet the future demand, development of varieties with improved yield and quality is the focus of researchers involved in fruit breeding. Though conventional breeding has resulted in the development of improved commercial varieties of different fruit crops, however conventional breeding is time consuming and faces several challenges due to long juvenile phase, highly heterozygous nature of most of the fruit crops. Challenges like changing climate, consumer preference, socio-economic conditions like reduced availability of land, labour and increasing cost of inputs, require fast and efficient methods to develop the varieties to meet the demands, which is not feasible with conventional breeding. Marker assisted breeding has given impetus to breeding efforts in several fruit crops, however it’s use is limited only for the traits controlled by a few major QTLs.
During last few years, enormous genomic resources have been developed for fruit crops using next generation sequencing technology. Such advances in genomic research in many fruit crops have paved the way for precision breeding using genomic assisted breeding (GAB) tools. GAB has helped in characterisation and utilisation of genome resources and using allele variation for cultivar development (Varshney et al. 2021). Advances in sequencing technology and affordability has allowed the genome wide analysis (GWAS) on diversity panels of different fruits resulting in identification of allelic variation associated with the traits of interest. Also, identification of superior alleles of candidate genes makes them amenable to genome editing based precision breeding. Genome wide genotyping and phenotyping offers tools for developing strategy for genomic selection (GS). Genomic selection relies on the prediction of breeding values of tested genotypes based on the large number of markers spread over entire genome. These tools promise to further improve breeding efficiency in fruit crops.

A family of about 73 genera and over 1,600 species (Hickey and King, 1988),Amaryllidaceae are usually distributed in tropical and sub-tropical regions. About 9 genera and over 60 species have been reported from India. Some of the larger genera along with the number of their world over reported species are Crinum (110), Hippeastrum (75), Narcissus (60), Hymenocallis (50), Haemanthus (50), Cyrtanthus (47), Zephyranthes (40), Galanthus (20), Polianthes (15), and Pancratium (15).
Hippeastrum (popular name Amaryllis) is one of the most beautiful bulbous ornamental plants grown in the world. It is very suitable for planting in pots, greenhouses, window gardens, flowering beds, rockeries, popular as cut flower, and useful in floral arrangements. Hippeastrum and Amaryllis are synonyms for ‘Trumpet lily’ or ‘Night Star lily’ in Indian gardens. In USA, A. belladonna is known as Callicore rosea sometimes as Hippeastrum equestre, and in South Africa as ‘March lily’, being a variable species. Plants of the genus A. belladonna are known as ‘Belladonna lily’, ‘Naked Lady’ or ‘Amarillo’. Hippeastrum hybridum is popularly known as ‘Royal Dutch’ amaryllis or ‘Dutch’ amaryllis hybrids. Hippeastrum takes its name from the Hippeus meaning ‘a knight rider’ or horse and ‘astron’ meaning a star, due to some fancied resemblance in H. equestre, perhaps of the equitant leaves and the star shaped corolla opening.

Genome editing has emerged as a powerful tool for accelerating crop improvement in horticultural crops by enabling precise modifications in their genetic architecture. Considering the development and advantages of genomeediting technologies in improving diverse characteristics of horticultural crops, substantial increase has been reported in recent years including ZFN, TALEN, and especially CRISPR/Cas systems. The CRISPR/Cas technology has proved its potential in altering many genes of interest in horticultural plants including fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants for improving agronomically important traits and attributes such as growth rate, seed size, flowering time, flower color, storage time, resistance to biotic stresses, tolerance to abiotic stresses, herbicide tolerance, metabolism, fruit color, fruit ripening etc. This technology opens new avenues for more favorable and precise manipulation of plant genomes to improve crop performance.
Genome editing has emerged as a powerful biotechnological tool with transformative potential for horticultural crops. It involves the precise modification of plant DNA to enhance desired traits, increase crop yield, and confer resistance to pests, diseases, and environmental stresses. Molecular tools like CRISPR-Cas9, TALENs, and ZFNs act as molecular scissors, allowing for the targeted alteration of specific DNA sequences with unprecedented accuracy. This technology allows scientists to introduce or enhance beneficial traits in crops, including disease resistance, improved nutrition, and drought tolerance. Horticulture is a critical component of global food production and human well-being as it involves cultivation and management of plants for food, aesthetics, and medicinal purposes. Horticultural crops comprising fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, and medicinal herbs, not only contribute to nutritional needs of populations worldwide but also enhance the visual appeal of our surroundings. However, productivity and quality of horticultural crops face significant constraints due to challenges such as biotic and abiotic stresses, limited genetic variation, and increasing demands for improved traits. Plant breeders have employed various techniques, such as hybridization, selection, and genetic manipulation, to enhance horticultural crops. These approaches have contributed to improved yield, disease resistance, and other desirable traits.

A family of about 175 genera and 2,500 species, Amaranthaceae are mostly distributed in tropical but also in temperate regions. About 18 genera and over 50 species have been reported from India. Some of the larger genera with the number of their approximately reported species and common names are Alternanthera (200, alligator weed), Gomphrena (100, globe amaranth), Iresine (80, gizzard plant), Amaranths (60, pigweed) and Celosia (60, cock’s comb).
Gomphrenas are 30-40 cm tall, bushy with erect stems, hairy, light green with oblong-ovate leaves tapering towards the base. Round button like or spherical flower head is a cylindrical spike 1-2 cm long and 1 cm in diameter and may be terminal and/or axillary, and are born on long, thin stems above the foliage. Each flower head has tiny, conspicuous, papery, colourful bracts which enclose the inconspicuous true flowers. Bracts ovate, three mm long, apex acuminate, bracteoles 4.5-5.5 mm long. Ovary is sub-globose with two stigmas. Seed is brown, lustrous, 1.5 mm long (Wagner et al., 1999). It has both C3 and C4 pathway.
Selected Indian Genera
Achyranthes, Alternanthera, Amaranths, Celosia, Digera, Gomphrena and Pupalia.

DUS testing is a way of determining whether a newly bred variety differs from existing varieties within the same species, or the characteristics used to establish distinctness are expressed uniformly and that these characteristics do not change over subsequent generations. Testing the distinctness, uniformity and stability (DUS) of crop varieties is a statutory requirement before varieties can be entered into the Registers of Cultivars (National Lists) and/or granted Plant Breeders’ Rights (PBR). In India, Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Right (PPV&FR) Act (2001) provides the registration of new variety of plant if it conforms to the criteria of distinctness, uniformity and stability.
Why do we need a DUS test? New (candidate) varieties should be distinct from all other varieties whose existence is a matter of common knowledge, and also sufficiently uniform and stable with respect to the characteristics used to demonstrate distinctness. ‘Common knowledge’ is broadly defined to include all known varieties, i.e. any variety entered into or subject to an application for PBR, varieties grown commercially, held in publicly accessible reference collection, or of which there is a published description (UPOV 2002).
The responsibility for DUS testing of potato varieties in India lies with the ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI), Shimla, which is the national institute for potato research and development. Currently a set of 51 DUS characters in potato are defined by CPRI and being used for distinguishing new variety.

A family of over 250 genera and 2,500 species, Acanthaceae are distributed mainly in tropics, but also in Mediterranean region, Australia and USA. Central America, Brazil, Africa and Indo-Malaysia are the 4 chief centres of
distribution. About 70 genera and over 340 species have been reported from India. Some of the largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their worldover reported species are Justicia (300), Strobilanthes
(250), Barleria (230), Thunbergia (200), Aphelandra (200), Decliptera (150), Blepharis (100), Staurogyne (80), Mendoncia (60), Crossandra (60) and Acanthus (50).
Selected Indian Genera
Acanthus, Adhatoda, Barleria, Eranthemum, Justicia, Peristrophe, Ruellia, Thunbergia.
Economic Importance
1. Ornamental plants include Aphelandra aurantiaca, Barleria cristata, B. gibsoni, Beloperone guttata (shrimp plant), Crossandra infundibuliformis, Eranthemum bicolor, E. nervosum, Fittonia gigantea, Jacobinia carnea, Justicia gendarussa, Ruellia brittoniana, Thunbergia coccinia, T. erecta, T. fragrans and T. grandiflora.

The potential of Vegetable Genetic Resources (VGR) is vast, offering solutions to future challenges such as food and nutritional security. Achieving this requires the identification, collection, conservation, documentation, and utilization of these resources. The introduction and acceptance of improved varieties have resulted in the replacement of numerous landraces and local crop cultivars across various agri-horticultural crops, with a particular impact on vegetables. The alignment of activities related to the management of plant genetic resources at both global and national levels has enhanced the opportunities for utilizing VGR. India possesses a rich diversity of vegetable genetic resources, comprising indigenous and exotic varieties. Information regarding VGR in the Indian region can be accessed through passport data, conservation records, catalogs detailing characterization and evaluation, as well as insights into local vegetable usage, all of which contribute to strengthening these initiatives. This chapter delves into vegetable genetic resources, focusing on economically significant vegetable crops of India, along with regionally important crops, potential species, and their wild relatives, highlighting efforts undertaken at ICAR, NBPGR for its collection conservation, characterization and utilization.

Agriculture including forestry, range management and sustenance of plant biodiversity have been the core of Indian civilization that dates back to several millenniums. The enormous plant diversity arising due to the varie soil, environment and altitude variations that India enjoys has resulted in the evolution of various crop species and varieties suiting to different domestic and commercial needs. The Gene Fund created under the law is designed to encourage, protect, promote, and utilize the plant biodiversity for plant
breeding activity in perpetuity. The Gene Fund in turn gets nourished by the flow of annual fee arising out of the sale of seed of the registered varieties. The keepers (services of the men and women; individuals and communities) of plant variation in the agrobiodiversity hotspots are to be beneficiaries of the gene fund. National Gene Fund shall be used for supporting and rewarding farmers and farming communities, who are engaged in conservation and improvement of genetic resources of economic plants and their wild relatives, particularly from the areas identified as hotspots of agrobiodiversity.
An understanding of intellectual property rights for plant breeders has become increasingly important over the last few decades. It is also a confusing topic to many in the industry. Confusion is understandable when we are presented with various types of protection, many acronyms, terms used interchangeably and incorrectly, regulations that vary internationally and a lack of understanding or consistent interpretations of laws that govern these rights.