eChapters

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Grafting and budding are horticultural techniques used to join parts from two or more plants so that they appear to grow as a single plant. In grafting, the upper part (scion) of one plant grows on the root system (rootstock) of another plant. In the budding process, a bud is taken from one plant and grown on another. The practice of grafting can be traced back 4,000 years to ancient China and Mesopotamia. As early as 2,000 years ago, people recognized the incompatibility problems that may occur when grafting olives and other fruiting trees.

7.2 ROOT STOCK

The part of the graft that provides root system to the grafted plant is known as rootstock. It is, normally, raised by seeds in the seedbed and then, transplanted in the nursery bed for budding and grafting. Rootstocks are also raised in pots and polythene bags.

1. Botanical Name : Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don

2. Family : Myricaceae

3. Common Name : Box myrtle

4. Name in Indian languages: Kainaryamy (Telugu), Nagatenga (Assami), Satsarila (Bengali), Kariphal (Gujarati), Kaiphal (Hindi), Kirishivani (Kannada), Maruta (Malayalam), Soh-phi (Khasi), Kaphal (Kumaoni), Kayaphala (Marathi), Krishnagarbha (Sanskrit), Masudam (Tamil).

5. Description

Myrica esculenta is grow extensively in hilly regions of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh , Nepal and Bhutan at elevations of 1000-2300 m. It is small to medium size evergreen tree. The stem bark is grayish dark in colour and rough. The fruits of this species are edible and used by the local population. The stem bark and wood is very good for fuel wood purpose.

The current status of advances in fruit breeding is through the development of different scientific approaches augmented by ever-increasing knowledge and application of genetics, statistics and biotechnology. These innovative approaches very specific for a species in most of the cases, are the major tools of the fruit breeders to tackle the different objectives of fruit improvement programme at present Fruit improvement is a very slow process due to the long generation cycle varying from species to species, thereby reducing the chances of exploiting genetic recombination. Besides this factor, most of the fruit species are either highly heterozygous or polyploidy in nature. Due to this reason the asexual propagation of fruit plants is a conventional means while wide segregation occurs upon sexual reproduction. Such expectation is not unlikely because the types selected as commercial varieties are definitely to be vigorous ones, and a positive correlation exists between vigour and heterozygosity.

This discussion on breeding of fruit plants involves different aspect of the species concerned is so essential as well as fundamental that discussion of them must procede any consideration of breeding methods themselves. The plant species are grouped into two-self-pollinated and cross-pollinated. These two groups have emerged on the basis of pollination mechanism which plays significant role in the method of breeding application. To emphasize the difference in the reproductive systems of these two groups one should know the details about floral biology, mechanism of pollination control, reproduction by asexual and sexual means and self and cross-pollinated plants.

1. Introduction

Agricultural mechanization refers to usage of any improved tool, implement and machine by the farm workers to improve the efficiency of any operation to increase productivity. It also helps to reduce drudgery or stress which adversely affects human mental faculties leading to errors, imprecision and hazards and eventually loss of efficiency if done manually. In developed countries, however, mechanization is synonymous to automation. There is scope to mechanize every operation of crop production, post harvest and agro-processing.

Abstract

Colostrum is the lacteal secretion after the birth of the new-born. It has a very different composition from milk, naturally designed to build immunity, promotes growth, and protects new-born mammals from external factors. It has a higher amount of protein and fat which provides the building blocks for growth. The higher macro and micro nutrients present in it help in various inter and intracellular activity and metabolism. Colostrum is fully loaded with various immune-boosting factors and growth factors, among them immunoglobulin, lactoferrin, lysozyme, insulin-like growth factor, vitamins have the most importance. Colostrum can fight against various diseases, bacteria, viruses, toxins, and can build a healthy immune system and gastric digestion system in the human body. Bovine, non-bovine, and human colostrum have almost all components in common but at different compositions. Non-bovine colostrum is comparatively less explored than bovine colostrum. Deep research and marketing can bring this nature’s gift for the goodness of human beings.

Any material of natural or synthetic origin added to the soil to supply one or more plant nutrients.

10.1. Classification of fertilizers

10.1.1. Straight fertilizers

Supply only one primary plant nutrient, namely nitrogen or phosphorus or potassium.

Eg. Urea, ammonium sulphate, potassium chloride and potassium sulphate.

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) is one of the most important vegetable crop and is known as protective food due to its wide spread production and special nutritive value. Tomato is referred to be native of tropical America. In the 16^th century, it got spread from America to other parts of the world and became popular in India within the last six decades. It is known as world’s largest vegetable crop after potato and sweet potato. The overall world production of tomato is 1,180,000 tons with a productivity of 65 t/ha. Contribution of USA in tomato production is 13.2 million metric tons to the total world production (FAOSTAT). USA ranks third in position in the total world production of tomato after China and India (FAOSTAT). India produces 22,337MT of tomato from 801ha area.

Fungal Diseases

Fusarium Wilt

Economic Importance

Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum being so widespread, turns out to be a significant problem in many crops. It is one of the most widespread and damaging diseases of tomato wherever tomatoes are grown intensively. The pathogen also causes damage to many other crops likepotato, and pepper of the family Solanaceae. Yield losses of effected crops can goup to 45% in tomato in India.

Removal of entire plants or the economic parts after maturity from the field is called harvesting. Portion that is left behind on the field is known as stubble. The economic product may be grain, seed, leaf, root or entire plant.

Time of Harvesting

If the crop is harvested early, the produce contains high moisture and more immature grains. The yields will be low due to unfilled grains. It is very difficult to store the produce as shriveled grains with high moisture are highly prone to infestation by pest. The quality of the grain as well as germination percentage is also reduced. Late harvest results in shattering of grains, germination even before harvesting in rainy season and breakage during processing. Hence harvesting during correct time is very important.

Plants may be harvested at physiological maturity or harvest maturity. Plants are said to be in physiological maturity when the translocation of the photosynthates ceases to the economic part.

Wall pressure: The inward pressure exerted by the cell wall against expanding protoplast; equal but opposite to turgor pressure.

Warburg effect: Warburg effect states that the competition between CO₂ and O₂ for enzyme RuBisCO with CO₂ promoting photosynthesis and inhibiting glycolate formation and inhibiting photorespiration and O₂ promoting glycolate formation and inhibiting photosynthesis.

Water deficit: Water available to the plant is less than optimum requirement.

Water potential (ψ_w): Water potential is defined as free energy status of water in a system compared to the free energy status of pure water. Here system refers to water in plant cell or soil and pure water refers to the water which does not have any solute in it. Water potential is measured in terms of bars, Pascals or Megapascals and denoted by ψ_w.

History of rickettsial infections went back to 16^th century and it has long been associated with famine and war. Epidemic typhus had major impact to decide over the outcome of several wars. The epidemic alone killed or caused great sufferings to over 1,00,000 people during World Wars. However, the causative agent was not determined until the early part of the 20^th century. Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) was the first detected rickettsial infection in 1896 in Idaho Valley, USA. It was originally known as ‘black measles’ due to its clinical appearance in the form of characteristic spotted rash throughout the body. Howard Taylor Ricketts, an American pathologist for the first time described the causative agent of Rocky Mountain spotted fever and was able to isolate it in the laboratory animals during 1902-1909. He was a dedicated scientist and on several occasions injected himself with the pathogen for experiment. The causative pathogen of Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Rickettsia rickettsii was named after him. Later, the family Rickettsiaceae as well as the order Rickettsiales was named after him. Ernest William Goodpasture, an American pathologist and physician, invented the methods of isolation and culturing the rickettsial pathogens in chicken embryos and fertilized chicken eggs.

1. Background

Agriculture sustains 58 per cent of population in India. Productivity and profitability are two major planks for food security and sustainable livelihood of farmers. About 86 per cent of farmers in India own less than two hectors of land. As a result, their marketable surplus is small which poses a major challenge in ensuring remunerative price. Limitations associated with quality of produce, storage, transportation, credit as well as vagaries of weather and market are other related problems. These limitations further aggravate if the producers happen to be women due to their socio-cultural and economic position in the society. Only a decentralised and income assuring approach alone can bring prosperity to the farmers apart from gender equality. This would ultimately propel the agricultural growth of the country.

The chapter discusses one of such approaches called the public private partnership (PPP). It has gained prominence in the wake of the demand for farm reforms, trade, commerce, climate change and gender equality in recent years.

Biological diagnostic methods rely on the transmission and amplification of the pathogen in indicator hosts that develop symptoms. These methods test the biological properties of pathogens and early successes in the control of intracellular pathogens were largely due to the diagnosis of the causal agents by biological tests. The sensitivity of biological/serological tests is usually determined by the minimum number of pathogen propagules required to initiate infection. Inoculation with fewer particles could lead to false negative results. Biological techniques for disease diagnosis and pathogen detection are usually highly accurate but too slow and not amenable to large-scale application. 

Objectives

1. To know the various steps involved in the processing of various spices and condiments.
2. To know the grade of some spices and condiments.

Processing: Perform a series of mechanical or chemical operations on (something) in order to change or preserve it.

Processing of some spices and condiments are given below

1. Black pepper

Processing involves the following steps:

1. The fresh berries are dipped in hot water for a minute which results in an attractive black colour and also reduces the drying time.
2. The berries are separated from the spikes and dried in the sun for 7-10 days.
3. When dried, the berries retain the characteristic wrinkled appearance of black pepper of commerce.

Causes: Dietary causes like hypovitaminosis A, nutritional deficiency of vitamin B complex, linoleic acid. Iodine poisoning. Parasitic causes like flea, lice, mange infestation, ring worm.

Bronzing is a complex nutritional condition in guava (Psidium guajava L.). It manifests in the interveinal tissue of older leaves as bronze or copper colour development, while terminal leaves remain green. This is attributable to the inadequacy of elements P, K and Zn. Bad management and low soil fertility coupled with soil acidity are often due to it.

Bael (Angle marmelos) is an important arid fruits belongs to family Rutaceae and consists 2-3 species of which only one is in cultivation. It is important indigenous fruits of India, drought hardy tree, flowering and fruiting coincides with the onset of monsoon and fruits mature before commencement of summer. The tree shed off entire leaves during hot summer and fruits are exposed to direct sunlight, which favors ripening of fruits.

Abstract

Agricultural development interventions need agricultural financing to increase productivity. This study investigates what factors influence farmers’access and use of agricultural loans, what challenges they face in obtaining and repaying loans, and how financial support affects their income outcomes. The study also suggests some policy actions to improve the supply and performance of agricultural loans for farmers.

1.1. Meaning

Agricultural finance generally means studying, examining and analysing the financial aspects pertaining to farm business, which is the core sector of India. The financial aspects include money matters relating to production of agricultural products and their disposal.

Observation recording: Now a days green felling is completely banned. Fuelwood species are managed under clear-felling systems and tree species infected by insects and pests are felled selectively. The students are advised to visit the fuelwood plantations and forests areas where selective felling is going on.

Abstract

Omics arise from ome which means complete or totality. It refers to the collection of technologies used to investigate the roles, relationships, and actions of the various types of molecules that make up an organism’s cells. Omics technologies provide the tools required to investigate differences in DNA, RNA, proteins, and other cellular molecules between species and individuals within a species. These technologies comprise, genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, ionomics, glycomics, lipomics, cultureomics, pharmacogenomics, metagenomics, foodomics, eigenomics, phenomics, etc. The inclusion of all omics domain is known as multiomics. In this chapter we describe from basic, type structure of omics to all the recent cutting edge technologies in multiomics.

India is known to be rich source of medicinal plants since ancient time. Medicinal plants like Aloe vera, Aswagandha, basil, mint, cinnamon, etc. are widely used to cure various ailments and for several health benefits. Some of the common diseases like common cold, headache, stomach problem, skin disease, etc. are treated in home by use of various herbs. Medicinal plants can be grown in the backyard or on the rooftop to meet the household demand. Cultivation practices of some of the medicinal plants are described in this chapter.

Tulsi

Tulsi or basil is considered to be a sacred plant with religious importance. It is grown in homes as an aromatic perennial shrub and used for medicinal purpose. Tulsi possess antimicrobial and antiviral properties with capacity to purify the air. It can be grown up to an altitude of 2000 m above mean sea level. This plant can be grown in pots and in home gardens. The leaves and twigs of the plant are used for medicinal purpose. The fragrant leaves and flowers are used in the form of tincture, tea or decoction for curing cold & cough, stomach disorders, skin diseases, etc. The plant is also rich in antioxidant, vitamin and calcium. There are two types of tulsi viz. green type and purple. It can be planted in the pots or in the beds.