eChapters

Abstract

Buffaloes are considered to be the principle milk producing livestock species in India and Surti is one of the well-defined buffalo breeds of India. The study on lactation curve and persistency is very much helpful to know the sustainability of the lactation. The present study is based on daily milk production records for 298 lactations from 130 buffaloes belonging to 15 sires. Lactation curve was prepared through Statistical Packages for Social Sciences programme. Two functions, i.e. gamma function and inverse polynomial functions were fitted to the daily milk yield records. Persistency was calculated through simple analysis in Microsoft Excel 2000 on the weekly records of the milk yield. Gamma function was found to be more effective as compared to inverse polynomial function with higher R2 value for all the four lactations, which indicated that gamma function can be effectively used to establish lactation curve and predict milk yield of animals on any day of lactation. The value of persistency ranged from 97.94% in fourth lactation to 98.56 % in first lactation, indicating Surti buffaloes as fairly persistent in milk production throughout the lactation.

Abstract

The data on production performance of Banni buffaloes during the 2008-09 and 2009-10 were collected from the animals selected under project “In-Situ Conservation of Banni buffalo”. The data on 208 animals were analyzed and overall means ± SE for total lactation milk yield, lactation length, peak yield, days to attain peak yield, milk yield per day of lactation length, service period and calving interval were observed as: 2917.76 ±  54.77 lit., 292.19 ± 2.88 days, 14.86 ± 0.18 lit., 47.50 ± 2.92 days, 9.99 ± 0.14 lit., 87.13 ± 4.39 days and 380.87 ± 2.36 days, respectively. Present findings on production performance indicate Banni buffalo an valuable germplasm maintained under extensive production system and arid climatic conditions of Kachchh and holds the promise of raising milk production of non-descript and low producing buffaloes through up-grading and crossbreeding. Therefore, Banni buffalo can be use as improver breed for genetic improvement of non-descript buffalo population in semi-arid and arid regions of the state / country.

Abstract

Data pertaining to 1761 records on daily milk yield and 1416 milk samples for estimation of fat and SNF percent in Banni buffalo during the year 2008-10 were collected from the breeding tract under In-situ conservation project on Banni buffalo and utilized for present study. The overall means ± SE for daily milk yield was 09.86 ± 0.07 lit. The month-wise daily milk yield was observed highest in second month, followed by 1st (12.96 ± 0.19 lit), 3rd (12.73 ± 0.19 lit), 4th (11.66 ± 0.20 lit), 5th (10.81 ± 0.25 lit), 6th (09.77 ± 0.23 lit), 7th (08.58 ± 0.18 lit), 8th (07.26 ± 0.17 lit), 9th (06.15 ± 0.11 lit), 11th  (05.70 ± 0.10 lit), 10th (05.41 ± 0.09 lit), 12th (05.78 ± 0.08 lit) and 13th  (05.48 ± 0.63 lit) months of lactation. The data on milk constituents’ viz. fat and SNF percent was grouped according to the seasons of the year and morning – evening milking.

Abstract

Estimates of genetic parameters are needed for the prediction of breeding values and planning of selection strategies for desired genetic advancement. Even animal breeders feel lost when confronted with the huge set of different methods. This paper describes an overview of latest methods for the estimation of genetic parameters in a simplest possible way avoiding complex mathematical expressions.

Open nucleus breeding system is considered to be a best approach to bring genetic improvement in livestock. This system was first introduced New Zealand for faster genetic improvement of sheep. The milk recording under field condition is quite expensive. Moreover, farmers are not under any obligation to retain the animal till the lactation is completed. The generation interval is also very large as it takes about 6-7 year by the time complete record on progeny testing programmes in developing countries is available, so that the effective genetic improvement is small. Use of best proven bull on the elite cow, which are best 5-10% of the cow for genetic improvement of the population. The net genetic gain in the herd considering the actual genetic improvement from various parents off spring path is around 0.7% per annum. Considering these situation in develop countries it has been proposed that ‘nucleus’ herd be created where males from the best cows are obtained. The nucleus herd would be open in the sense that the lowest yielding cows are culled every year and are replaced by procurement of that many high yielding cow from farmers herd. The nucleus herds are utilized entirely for production of males for breeding purposes in the population.

Introduction

Uttarakhand has a mix of almost all domesticated species of livestock, very large in number and very low in productivity across the board. In economic terms they are a wealth indeed, low productivity not with standing, as the sector supports livelihoods of nearly 80 percent of the rural households in the state, at least in part in the majority of cases and in full in some (tribal and nomads exclusively living off livestock).

Livestock production in Uttarakhand is the endeavor of the small holder (marginal, small and landless) and takes place in millions of small and tiny holdings scattered across the state. The predominant farming system is mixed crop livestock farming, both in the plains as well as the hills, irrigated in the plains and rainfed in the hills.

Gujarat state blessed with rich goat genetic resources. Recognized goat breeds in the state are Kutchi, Surti, Zalawadi, Mehsanba and Gohilwadi which have been the integral component of small, marginal farmers, landless labourers and significantly contribute rural livelihood. These breeds excel in drought capacity, disease resistance and better adapted to harsh local climatic conditions under extensive production system. The population status and breeding tract of goat breeds are given in Table 1.

The goat genetic resources (AnGR) of state may be important assets for having the valuable adaptive traits that they have developed over long periods of time, such as:

Abstract

The Sonadi is an important breed of sheep in southern Rajasthan. Three districts namely Udaipur, Rajsamand and Chittorgarh were selected from major and Bhilwara from minor breeding tract for complete enumeration. Finally 450 shepherds were selected to collect the information with respect to demographical and geographical distribution as well as management practices. Among selected tehsils, two tehsils from each district were chosen for breed characterization. In all 6979 sheep from 147 shepherds of 49 villages in 8 tehsils were registered for breed characterization.

Abstract

The sires have been evaluated and ranked on the basis of solutions obtained through univariate and multivariate REML using animal model and BLUP value for sire effects under mode l 8. The data considered from 1214 animals descendent from 110 sires of chokla sheep maintained at CSWRI, Avikanagar, Rajasthan. The traits were considered birth weight, weaning weight, 6 months weight and first greasy fleece yield for the present study. Three solutions were used: Best linear unbiased Predication (BLUP1) values of Model 8, and univariate (BLUP₂) and multivariate (BLUP₃) solutions of REML animal models. Less than half of the sires were superior to the populations mean under BLUP₁ for the traits studied. The corresponding values were above 60% under BLUP₂, which was much higher than BLUP₁.

Introduction

Poultry rearing in North East is very popular as backyard venture and is an inseparable part of poor tribal people of this region.  Majority of birds reared in backyard yard system are indigenous nondescript in which growth and production is very low (60-70 eggs per bird per annum; 2.5 kg. and 1.5 kg. body weight per bird in males and females, respectively). Due to this reason, the per capita availability of egg and meat is too low as compared to recommended allowance, particularly in rural areas. Moreover, the agriculture of N.E. region is characterized by monocropping system. The system of cropping is not suitable for providing round the year farm income. Therefore, most of farmers of this region rearing pig, goat and poultry in the back yard of their house to support their livelihood throughout the year. The N.E. region is most suitable for rural poultry production having plenty of natural foods i.e. good greenery through out the year, insects and other food resources.  Rural poultry production also has an appreciable advantage of being easy to raise, low input and higher reproduction. Rural poultry farming utilizing surplus coarse grains, kitchen waste and greenery and converting them into protein rich human food and valuable manure.  The manure obtained from poultry having more essential nutrients Nitrogen (three times the cattle manure), Phosphorus, Potash, Magnesium, Sodium and Calcium plus trace minerals, which are very essential for soil fertility and texture.

Introduction

Coordinated and innovative efforts of government agencies and milk producers’ has immensely increased milk production and ushered in White revolution in India leapfrogging the country to the leading position in milk production (102 million tonnes) in the world. With an annual rate of 4-5% and with a share of 18% in the agricultural gross domestic product; milk is largest agricultural commodity in India (Economic Survey, 2007-08). However, the improvement in milk production in past few decades has not necessarily resulted in proportionate increase in profits to dairy farmers as animals with high milk production have increased frequency of health disorders.

Since the linking of the abnormal chromosome constitution of 45, XO to the peculiar phenotype of Turner’s syndrome (Ford 1959), an increased interest in the association between abnormal chromosome constitution and some clinical syndromes was perceived worldwide. The advent of “banding” techniques in the late 1960s helped to refine the detection accuracy and provided for more and better information about cytogenetic make-up of cells and contributed significantly to the localisation of certain genes (McKusik 1992). This phenotypic-karyotypic correlation was done on the basis of visual deletions, insertions, and duplications etc. of DNA segments of various lengths. However, many instances are known in which, because of a parent carrying a balanced translocation, two or more offsprings suffer from a deficiency and/or excess of chromosomal material. Some familial chromosomal arrangements are beyond detection by our current cytogenetic methods, although remarkable results have been forthcoming with high resolution banding. Similarly, paracentric inversions in a parent may not be evident except when carefully studied with high resolution banding, but can give rise to a variety of abnormalities in children.

Introduction

Livestock contribute directly to the livelihoods of nearly one billion of the world’s population. Livestock provide protein and minerals for human consumption, manure for crop production, and fibre and leather for industrial uses. Animals are also a source of draught power. Beyond their role of providing food and inputs for agriculture and industry, livestock provide security to farmers in developing countries, especially in emergencies such as crop failure. To many of the resource-poor, both smallholder farmers and landless livestock keepers, animals are a living bank, facilitating both income distribution and savings. In addition, by consuming crop residues and by-products, in addition to well-managed grazing, livestock production contributes positively to the environment, particularly in mixed crop-livestock production systems. Thus, livestock are an important source of income and employment that contribute to poverty alleviation and enhance the household food security of farmers.

Historical Background: Mendelian Genetics
 
Gregor Mendel (1822-1884), the first geneticist, proposed his principles (Mendel’s laws of inheritance) addressing the question of ‘what is inherited and how?’ based on his experimental results with sweet pea. New scientific discoveries supported Mendel’s principles. The chromosome theory of inheritance was proposed based on the cytological observations that transmission patterns of chromosomes are closely associated with Mendel’s principles (Sutton 1903). T.H. Morgan (1866-1945) provided the empirical evidences of this theory using fruit fly, Drosophilla. He demonstrated that genes located close together on the same chromosome co-segregated in his experimental crosses (i.e. linkage), and could be mapped into linear linkage groups which corresponded to chromosomes (Morgan 1934). Thanks to Morgan’s contributions, the failure of independent assortment in Mendelian inheritance could be explained by linkage. In 1908, the equation describing the expected genotype distribution in a random mating population at equilibrium was derived by Hardy and Weinberg (Crow, 1999).

Mastitis is a disease of the mammary gland caused by pathogens that find their way into the lumen of the gland through the teat canal. Our efforts have been focused on developing mastitis resistant dairy cattle for a variety of reasons. Firstly, mastitis is a significant detriment to agricultural productivity. Mastitis is on every dairy farm and affects both the production and post harvest segments of the dairy industry. It is clearly a global disease. Secondly, the incidence of mastitis has not declined appreciably since the implementation of the extensive antibiotic therapy and culling of infected animals. Thirdly, considerable effort has been expended in developing vaccines that have not been as efficacious as hoped. Given these past efforts it is far from certain that a truly effective vaccine will ever be realized. Finally, because of the low heritability of mastitis resistance selective breeding has not been a useful tool for combating mastitis. Additionally, there is a strong desire to reduce the on-farm use of those antibiotics that are also used in human medicine, and certainly not least is a desire to improve the welfare of our dairy animals.

Introduction

Genetic resistance to diseases is a great resource to control and prevent diseases, and to improve the productivity in livestock and poultry. The emergence of virulent and drug resistant pathogens, restriction on use of antimicrobials and appearance of certain diseases associated with selection for production traits emphasize the possible exploration for genetic resistance to diseases (Pinard et al., 1992). Genetic resistance to diseases is a composite trait and difficult to measure directly. The disease resistance measurement was first started as difference in mortality among populations. Later on, several other criteria related to expression of infection such as antibody response, tumour production count or expression in quantitative scale such as survival time and density of pathogen in target organs were used as a measure of disease resistance.

Abstract

Prolactin is a hormone secreted predominantly from anterior pituitary and imparts important roles related to development of mammary gland, reproductive behaviour and immune response. The objective of this study was to explore restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) pattern of prolactin gene, to estimate gene and genotype frequencies of different restriction fragments and to study the effect of genotypes on milk production and reproduction traits in crossbred cattle Bos taurus x Bos indicus (Jersey x HF x Sahiwal).The present study investigated RFLP within 156bp amplification products of the bovine prolactin gene exon 3 in 30 crossbred cattles selected randomly from a herd using specific set of primers (Forward primer- 5’- CGA GTC CTT ATG AGC TTG ATT CTT -3’ and reverse primer- 5’- GCC TTC CAG AAG TCG TTT GTT TTC -3’). Restriction enzyme digestion with RsaI revealed three patterns in crossbred cattle, one having 156bp fragment (AA genotype), second having 156bp, 82bp and 74bp fragments (AB genotype) and third having 82bp and 74bp fragments (BB genotype) indicating genetic polymorphism. The gene and genotype frequencies in crossbred cattle were found to be 0.78 and 0.22 for A and B alleles and 0.70, 0.17 and 0.13 for AA, AB and BB genotypes, respectively.

Bulls are considered as the half of the herd as the genetic contribution of a male almost commensurate with that of a female. The male gamete, following deposition in the female reproductive tract, traverses a long path before it could effect a successful fertilization process. It is the beauty of the nature’s creation that in spite of encountering much of this physical and chemical stress, the male chromatin remains stable until it forms the male pronucleus following fertilization. This amazing feature is endowed by the high level of compaction of the sperm nuclear DNA which in turn is due to the replacement of the sperm nuclear histones by protamines.

Abstract

People are the most important and valuable resources of any organization. Dynamic people can build dynamic and growth-oriented organizations. No wonder that late Homi J Bhava advocated on identification and selection of a dynamic scientist and building a laboratory ‘for’ him and ‘around’ him and not the reverse, that is, building a laboratory with certain aim and then search a suitable candidate to steer it. Effective employees can contribute to the effectiveness of the organization. Competent and motivated people can make things happen and enable an organization to achieve its goal. Therefore, organizations should continuously ensure that the dynamism, effectiveness, competency, and motivation of its people remain at a high level. Human resource development is a continuous process to ensure the development of employee dynamism, effectiveness, competencies and motivation in a systematic and planned manner.

Abstract

Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. Motivation is a complex area. It’s different for different persons. Alignment of aims, purposes and values between staff, teams and organization is the most fundamental aspect of motivation. Organizational work culture and employees behavior are two important factors in taking decision on motivation techniques to be followed in the organization. Security of job, reward on better performance, importance of employee’s view in decision making, positive attitude, decisive leadership, etc bring motivation among employees. The five practices such as get to know every employee, challenge them to improve the performance, treat each employee as client for a day, establish great idea award and implement the great idea in organization activity, can improve the motivation of employees. They should be considered as resources, trusted by giving responsibility and rewarded with performance bonus for better motivation in the workplace.

Abstract

Training is for improvement of a person. Training is no longer optional. In the 21st century, an organization’s capacity to effectively train its people is part of its ability to survive.  And if that capacity isn’t there, or if it is defective, then the organization itself will reveal that flaw in a number of destructive ways, including loss of bottom line profits. Needs identification will help to identify the necessary and relevant issues for proper planning and implementation. Needs identification is the first logical step to determine and justify the requirement for training in the first place. It acts as a prognosis of an organizational ailment. There are various methods and techniques to identify needs which are then categorized into four major categories : democratic, diagnostic, analytic and compliance needs. Since none of the technique is self sufficient in nature it is advisable to have a combination of techniques so as to get the true result i.e. the actual training needs. Need analysis is the next step in the training process to determine training for whom, why and what. The three major components of needs analysis are organizational/strategic analysis, task analysis and person analysis. Organizational analysis involves determining the extent to which training is congruent with the company’s business strategy and resources.

Abstract

Mentoring is a personal enhancement strategy through which one person facilitates the development of another by sharing known resources, expertise, values, skills, perspectives, attitudes and proficiencies. The concept of mentoring is not new. Guru – Shishya traditions in every old civilization are the examples of mentoring by which culture, technology and knowledge have been successfully disseminated from older generation to newer generation. Being an important career building factor, now more emphasis is given to develop mentoring relationship in organization level. In office culture mentoring facilitates an environment in which an individual grows both as a person and as a professional.

Abstract

Leadership behavior is seen in every group of social animals like elephant, honey bee, human being, etc. Initially people thought this behavior as inborn character and only few lucky people possessed it. But now it has been proved that this character can be developed by interested people through systematic training. In every family parent are playing the role of either leader or manager and being a role model gradually transmitting this behavior to their children from childhood itself. Training begins at home of every successful leader.  In this article the characteristic features of leaders, style of their functioning, leadership theories and the difference between a leader and a manager are discussed in details. Important tips have been mentioned to follow for becoming a good and successful leader.

Abstract

Stress can be due to both positive as well as negative experiences, which also forms a necessary part of our daily lives. If we consider an evolutionary standpoint stress was necessary for survival (i.e., imagine hunting large prey on which one’s entire tribe is dependent) and in our modern lives also stress is important as it motivates us for the fulfillment of tasks and changes. Pressure is felt from the environment during transition period ( like at the time of high school graduation) and in preparation for some events (like job interview). Although stress can be a motivation tool, too much stress or inability to cope up with stress can have an adverse effect on the health of an  individual. This chapter represents the study on stressors, various sources of stress, outcomes of stress, and various strategies which will help an individual to cope up with stress. The study is supported by case studies which helps in understanding the chapter more clearly.

Abstract

No one is born with the gift of good time management skills and it is rarely taught at schools or universities. The ways to manage time and get the things done is something which has to be developed and implemented by an individual himself. We need to find out the perfect method that will suit us. We may often wish to get more time but we only get 24 hours, 1,440 minutes or 86,400 seconds each day. The perfect ways to utilize time depends upon skills learned through self analysis, planning, evaluation and self control. Establishing a time management depends on individual’s personality, ability to self motivate and level of self discipline. The objective of this chapter is to focus on benefits of time management, tips for time management, steps for time management and various techniques of time management. The study is supported by case studies which will help in understanding the chapter thoroughly.

Abstract

Whenever human beings come together and interact, there are bound to be conflicts. It is the struggle between individuals or groups or organizations for values, status, power or scare resources, that creates tension and frustration. It cannot be totally eliminated, it has to be managed. Positive conflicts sometimes lead to innovations or new directions of thinking in the Research and Development (R&D) environment. But negative conflicts mainly breed unproductiveness, a climate of distrust and suspicion, antagonism, and neglect of organizational goals. Conflict arises due to one of the three reasons : unacceptability, uncertainty and incomparability of alternatives. The problem of unacceptability arises when the most preferred alternative is not found to be acceptable. Uncertainty arises when the individual faces problem to select one from the alternatives. The incomparability dilemma is a situation where the decision maker does not have standards to compare alternatives. Modern managers must be equipped to deal with different types of conflict and devise strategies to resolve them. This chapter deals with conflicts at individual level, at group level or at organizational level, their resolution through negotiation or collaboration, models and methods for managing conflicts, etc in details. A healthy organization climate can unblock creative potential of its employees, streamlining and facilitating efforts for the good of the organization and its employees.

Abstract

Workplace has become more and more complex due to tremendous pressures and high expectations and it poses heavy demand on the managers and leaders to exhibit their emotions smartly and intelligently. Thus, in the present scenario social and emotional competencies are considered as very important ingredients of individual’s efficiency and effectiveness at workplace. Emotional intelligence is the ability to sense, understand, value and effectively apply the power and access of emotions as a source of human energy, information, trust, creativity and influence. Present chapter elucidates different models of emotional intelligence and role of culture and sociological factors in defining emotional intelligence.  It also explains the four cornerstone model of emotional intelligence. These four cornerstones made emotional intelligence moved out of the preview of psychological analysis and philosophical theories into the domain of direct knowing, exploration and application. These are emotional literacy, emotional fitness, emotional depth and emotional alchemy, which are significant in the organizational context. Finally chapter describes about different measures of emotional intelligence.

Abstract

The professionals carry additional moral responsibilities as compared to the general population and in society the professionals are capable of taking actions and decisions in a situation which the general public cannot take due to the lack of relevant training and knowledge. Ethics are used world-wide in large companies as well as in small businesses. Ethics is required to be promoted in the work place since it gives employees a sense of trust and worth that can help the business and employees succeed. The client places trust in the professional on the basis that the service provided will be of benefit to them. The purpose of this chapter is to study about need of ethics, types of professional ethics, moral principles of professionals and ethical decision making. Further the study is supported by case studies to make the chapter more relevant.

Abstract

This chapter highlights the need of performance appraisal. It discusses various measures and methods of performance appraisal with respect to organizational goals. Performance counseling, when used as a part of performance appraisal is a strong motivational tool for the employees and results in organizational effectiveness. The issue has been discussed from the perspective of employer and employee

Abstract

The major objective of this chapter is to examine how knowledge management initiative can bring competitive edge and help organizations to compete in a knowledge era. People now viewed as being the most valuable asset and ‘people management’ being a pertinent issue in knowledge management, the pivotal role of HR is being increasingly recognized by the organizations in a knowledge economy. The chapter starts with a discussion on the nature of knowledge management, theory, and process and then explores the role of human resource practices in facilitating the KM process in organizations. The author examines how different HRM practices like talent management, performance management, training and development, fostering trust, reward systems, institutionalizing learning systems and leadership can be linked with the knowledge management process to achieve competitive advantage.

Abstract

Human resource management (HRM) has experienced a strong evolution. It is necessary to evaluate the design and implementation of personnel policies in order to provide useful information to managers. The objective of HR Audit is to analyze and evaluate the HR policies and their level of fit with the firm’s strategy and the characteristics of human capital. A periodic and systematic audit is very important in order to check the effectiveness and proper implementation of various HR policies in the organization. This chapter will represent various sections where the HR audit can be carried out, what should be the task of auditors, what are the steps/processes that needs to be followed at the time of audit, and various tools for HR Audit and preparation of Audit Report to be used for future references. At the end of this chapter a case study has been presented in order to make the study more effective.

Introduction

Under the present scenario of growing human population and shrinking land and water resources for agriculture, expanding abiotic and biotic stresses, increasing genetic erosion; relentless efforts are needed to enhance the plant productivity as well as quality of produce. In fact, improvements in agricultural production as well as food and nutrition conditions depend on land, water and energy resources, which are, undoubtedly, limited and depleting at a rapid pace.

Biotechnological innovations in conjunction with conventional technologies have opened new frontiers in agriculture thereby offering exciting opportunities for increased sustainability and profitability in agriculture. Thus, biotechnological tools complement (rather than replace) the traditional methods used to enhance the agricultural productivity to cater to the needs of third world agriculture (Swarup and Srivastava1990, Rao et al. 1996).

Indian crop production system excels in front of several biophysical adversities commonly known as biotic and abiotic stress.  Water is the principal factor limiting crop yield and about 2/3 of total cultivated landing India comprise of Dry land agriculture primarily under rainfed conditions with no or limited water supply system.  The Indian production systems are dominated by cereals, primarily rice maize, sorghum, pearl millet other coerces and fine cereals leguminous (urd bean, mung bean, peanut) and oil yielding crops during kharif and  wheat barley chickpea, lentil and forage legumes in rabi  season.  The production systems are generally characterized by cereal/legume mixed-cropping dominated by maize, millet, sorghum and wheat. The major constraints in both regions to crop production are low soil fertility, insecure rainfall, low-productive genotypes, low adoption of improved soil and crop management practices, and lack of appropriate institutional support. choice of crop  is important but selection of right varieties is utmost  important because  varieties which have proven excellent in irrigated or high rainfall areas are generally not suited for limited irrigated conditions.

Vegetable occupy an important place in diversification of agriculture and have played a pivotal role in food and nutritional security of ever growing population of our country. The vegetable requirement of our country is estimated at 225 million tonnes by 2020 (Paroda, 2020) against only 134 million tonnes in 2009-10 (NHB, 2010). India is facing, today, with stagnation in crop productivity and slows down in agricultural growth. Declining soil health and fertility is considered as one of the factor for such a decline. The restoration of soil health and fertility is, therefore, a formidable challenge before us to ensure higher and sustainable productivity, profitability and national food and nutritional security.

Introduction

The increasing concern about the long-term productivity of agro ecosystems has emphasized the need to develop a management strategy that maintains and protects the soil resources. This is directly related to the maintenance of the level of soil organic matter and nitrogen status, which are the critical components of soil productivity. These parameters can change over time due to crop management practices such as cultivation, crop rotation, residue management or fertilization which, in turn, can influence the long-term sustainability of ecosystem. Application of chemical fertilizer is one of the most expensive inputs in agriculture. About 65% of the applied nitrogenous fertilizer is lost from the plant–soil system through gaseous emissions, runoff, erosion and leaching which causes greenhouse effects and nitrate pollution of surface and ground water (Rejesus and Hornbaker 1999). Similarly, P applied in soil is rapidly fixed and results in low P availability for plant production. In this context, the deployment of microbial biofertilizers promise increasing soil nutrient availability in integrated nutrient management system.

Introduction

Seed is regarded as carrier of new technologies. Therefore, the seed needs to be protected so as to deliver it as an efficient input. When seed is planted during an environmental stress like heat or drought chemical reactions in the seed may not go as smoothly as when the seed is under little or no stress. All the crops are liable to face varying degree of water stress and it is most crucial at the time of germination and plant establishment. Successful stand establishment under all conditions is the key to assured production. The early sown varieties of various crops faces the problem of heat stress at early vegetative stage. Moreover, due to global warming there is uncertainty regarding the physiological response of crops to enhanced atmospheric temperature. Any significant change in climate on a global scale directly affects crop production and then would impact local agriculture.

Nursery is a place like a crèche, where young tender seedlings are nurtured before planting in the field. The healthy, sturdy, vigorous and diseas free seedlings can establish well in competitive environment. Generally, vegetables like tomato, brinjal, chilli, pepper, cauliflower, cabbage, knol khol, lettuce, onion, Brussel’s sprouts are raised through seedlings. But skyrocketing cost of hybrid seeds and high premium of early harvest warrant the attention of cucurbits growers to produce the nursery, Nursery raising has certain advantages over the direct seeding like:

Though a large number of insect pests are reported to attack mango, which cause considerable damage to mango crops in India. More than 492 species of insects, 17 species of mites and 26 species of nematodes have been reported to be infesting mango trees, about 45 per cent of which have been reported from India. Almost a dozen of them have been found damaging the crop to a considerable extent causing severe losses and, therefore, may be termed as major pests of mango. These are hopper, mealy bug, inflorescence midge, fruitfly, scale insect, shoot borer, leaf webber and stone weevil. Of these, insects infesting the crop during flowering and fruiting periods cause more severe damage. The insects other than those indicated above are considered as less injurious to mango crop and are placed in the category of minor pests. A brief description of the biology and control of major pests of mango is given below. Mango suffers from several diseases at all stages of its life. All the parts of the plant, namely, trunk, branch, twig, leaf, petiole, flower and fruit are attacked by a number of pathogens including fungi, bacteria and algae. They cause several kinds of rot, die back, anthracnose, scab, necrosis, blotch, spots, mildew, etc. Some of these diseases like powdery mildew are of great economic importance as they cause heavy losses in mango production. Major pests and diseases of mango and their control measures are discussed below.

Introduction

In India ,the increasing demographic pressure with developmental activities are causing tremendous pressure in utilization of natural resources leading to various kinds of ecological problems and land degradation. The Govt. of India has for long considers watersheds as catalysts for development activities in rain-fed areas. Watershed, simple stated as a manageable hydrological unit. Watershed development approach calls for an integrated effort of many courts, viz, area development, resource identification and management programme- planning, implementation and evaluation and also the disciplines and functionary involved. An integrated approach in watershed management, the development of agricultural land alone is not the criteria, but the development of the entire area covering a watershed from highest point (ridgeline) to outlet of the Nalah or natural stream will have to be considered.  For scientific development of watershed area, all natural resources such as water, land, human, vegetation, livestock, wildlife etc. have to properly identified, quantified, and appropriately utilized.

Sustainable crop production depends upon the rational use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides along with organic manures for better soil health. Owing to the constant production of crops from the soil, the latter is being depleted gradually of its nitrogenous and other nutrients. An ordinary crop takes about 25 lb of nitrogen (N) from an acre. It is, therefore, necessary to replenish the soil with the elements, which are removed by the crops year after year. Moreover, in recent years increasing fertilizer costs, and concern for sustainable soil productivity and ecological stability in relation to use of chemical fertilizers, have emerged as issues of vital concern. Furthermore, heavy reliance on chemical fertilizers tends to favour economically those farmers with large hectarage. These considerations have led to a renewed interest in the biofertilizers and organic manures such as FYM, compost and green manures. Biofertilizers which are formulations of bacteria, blue green algae or fungi helps in sustainable agriculture production either by providing plants with fixed nitrogen, available P or by other plant growth promoting substances. Organic matter (OM) is the life of the soil because it contains all the essential elements required for plant growth.

1. Introduction

In the field of sustainable agriculture our main aim to produce high quality, safe and affordable food for ever-increasing worldwide population. Today, global agriculture is at crossroads and this is the consequence of climatic change, increased population pressure and detrimental environmental impacts. Furthermore, agricultural growers and producers have the additional constraints of economic profitability and sustainability. During the last couple of decades excessive amounts of chemicals are used to improve plant health, productivity and for management of plant pathogens, which has disturbed the ecological balance of soil and has led to the depletion of nutrients. Therefore, there has been ever-increasing interest to develop new mechanisms to ensure food security through sustainable crop production system that will supply adequate nutrition without harming the agroecosystem. Plant growth in agricultural soil is influenced by many abiotic and biotic factors. There is a thin layer of soil immediately surrounding plant roots that is an extremely important and active area for root activity and metabolism which is known as rhizosphere.

Introduction

The fast development of technology for increasing production ignoring the agroecosystem resulted in disturbed natural cycles. The result is visible in terms of unsustainabiliity in agroecosystem. In addition, increasing use of chemical pesticides for the management of soil-borne plant pathogens had caused pollution of soil, surface and ground water besides affecting the crop produce and ecosystem. The pendulum of public opinion once so favourable to chemical control has gone against chemicals and advocated phasing out the chemical pesticides. Revival of the natural balance is therefore needed for sustainable farming with eco-friendly methods such as bioagents/biopesticides, soil solarization, botanicals, etc. Organic farming is one such approach which emphasis on maintaining the natural cycle with eco-friendly approaches.

Mites have been known as pests of agricultural and horticultural crops since long but now they rank as very serious pests and vectors of many plant diseases. The application and extensive use of pesticides, fertilizer and improved cultural methods have probably favoured increase of the population. Mites as crop pests are confined to certain group of the other acari. Near about 20,000 species have been described of the total mite fauna on a world basis. From India, 660 species of phytophagous mites have been described and nearly 30 species are reported as potential pests (Gupta 1987). Phytophagous mite belongs to family - Tetranychidae, Tenuipalpidae, Tarsonemidae, Eriophyidae and Tuckerellidae. These mites cause direct damage like loss of chlorophyll, stunting of growth, defoliation, reduction in size and quality of fruits, appearance of various types of plant deformities etc. and all these severely affect the yield. Besides causing direct damages, few phytophagous mites inject toxic substances in to their hosts, which cause increased localized growth and disruption of tissue (Jeppson et al. 1975), and many species belonging to family – Eriophyidae are known to act as vectors of plant viruses. The dust entangled in the web formed by tetranychid mites on leaves prevent the sunlight reaching the leaf surface and as result photosynthesis is impaired, the leaves turn pale, yellow and fall down. This affects the vitality of the plant.

The contribution of agro biodiversity to world agricultural production is immense. The world agricultural landscape is now dominated by few crops and varieties. This agricultural scenario is suicidal because the homogeneous plant population is vulnerable to biotic and abiotic stresses. The ecosystems rich in biodiversity possess greater resilience and hence able to recover more readily from biotic and abiotic stresses, such as drought, environmental degradation, pests, diseases, epidemics, etc. Hence, a decline in biological diversity puts the functioning of ecosystems at risk. The cultural value of biological diversity conservation and sustainable management for present and future generations is another important reason for conserving it for posterity. To tide over the precarious condition of food insecurity, rich crop germplasm must be sustainably managed to tap the potential of crop genetic resources. The sustainable management of agrobiodiversity is therefore very essential for developing adaptation strategies in the era of global climate change.

Introduction

Medicinal and aromatic plants constitute a major segment of the flora, which provides raw materials for use in the pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and drug industries. The indigenous systems of medicines, developed in India for centuries, make use of many medicinal herbs. These systems include Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, and many other indigenous practices. More than 9,000 native plants have established and recorded curative properties and about 1500 species are known for their aroma and flavour. In one of the studies by the World Health Organisation, it is estimated that 80 per cent of the population of developing countries relies on traditional plant based medicines for their health requirements (WHO 1991). Even in many of the modern medicines, the basic composition is derived from medicinal plants and these have become acceptable medicines for many reasons that include easy availability, least side effects, low prices, environmental friendliness and lasting curative property. India and China are the two major producing countries, having 40 per cent of the global biodiversity and availability of rare species. These are well known as the home of medicinal and aromatic crops that constitute a segment of the flora, and provide raw materials to the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, fragrance, flavour etc. industries.

Introduction

India produces 77.51 million tones of fruits of which only 10-20% are processed and rest are used as fresh (Singh 2010).  The post harvest losses are estimated to be in the order of 20-40%.  In terms of value it exceeds Rs.2000/- crores annually (Chadha 1989).  Processing of fruits under arid conditions is all the more important due to non-availability of fresh produce throughout the year in rural areas.  However, the area and production under arid fruits are increasing day by day in the states of Rajasthan, Haryana and Gujarat.  As a result seasonal glut has started in the local market and growers are not able to get the remunerative prices of their produce. In our country over 70% of the Indian population resides in village and are engaged mainly in farming and related activities besides their exclusive involvement in domestic work. Keeping above points in view, Agro-based technology should be developed for rural masses to create gainful employment by increasing the productivity through value added processed from arid fruits.

Biotechnology is one of the most exciting and revolutionary sciences of 21st century. According to Convention on Biological Diversity, biotechnology is defined as “any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use”. Biotechnology has proven its immense applications at every step of human life such as, health care, crop improvement, development of valuable products and abatement of environmental problems. Agricultural biotechnology is the area of biotechnology involving its applications to agriculture. Agricultural biotechnology has been practiced for a long time, as people have sought to improve agriculturally important plants/ organisms by selection and breeding.

Introduction

Seabuckthorn (Hippophae Spp) a treasure house of vitamins, belonging to the family Elaeagnaceae, and it is a valuable medicinal plant, since its fruit contain high amount of bioactive substances. It is a thorny, temperate bush, tree and is widely distributed throughout the dry temperate regions of Europe and Asia. As the name indicates Seabuckthorn, the plant grows from sea level to high altitude mountain regions but mainly distributed in higher elevations of Indian Himalayas, from Ladakh (J & K) to Lahaul - Spiti (H.P.), Kumaon and Garhwal in Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh (Chauhan 1999). It is seen under natural conditions Seabuckthorn grows on slopes, well drained soil with silt, river banks, lakes, sea shores & waste lands. It is well adapted to dry conditions. Seabuckthorn the wonder plant of cold arid Himalaya, grows in wastelands, dry rocks and along river belts in Indus, Nubra, Chanthang, Suru, zanskar and Lauhal - Spiti valleys in India (Singh and Chaurasia 2000).

The major challenge of the present time in agriculture is implementing sustainable development and meeting the food needs of increasing population simultaneously. Agricultural extension always remains an integral part of National Agricultural Policy. At present, agricultural extension has a crucial role to play in the context of growing demands of agricultural production in a sustainable manner. In this situation extension’s traditional task of transferring and disseminating appropriate technologies and agronomic practices would not be sufficient. There is need to view extension for sustainable development in an institutional strengthening context, both in functional and structural.

Laboratory animal science (LAS) advances scientific understanding of the care and use of animals that play a key role in research supporting the development of biomedicine. National and provincial laws, regulations, guidelines and standards apply to quality control and licensing, quarantine and infectious disease control, breeding and husbandry, transgenic animals, staff qualifications, animal welfare, imports, exports and transportation.   Regulation and oversight of lab animal use are the responsibility of the National Ministry of Science and Technology, provincial departments of science and technology, and institutional animal care and use committees.