eChapters

English name : Vanilla
Botanical name : Vanilla fragrans (Salisb)
Family : Orchidaceae
Chromosome number : 2n =32
Centre of origin : Mexico
Orchid (Vanilla fragrans Salisb Syn. V. Planifolia Andrews) is an orchid belonging to the family Orchidaceae. Vanilla is cultivated primarily for its beans, which are prized for their sweet scent, rich aroma, and delightful flavour. As the most expensive spice, vanilla serves as the primary source of vanillin, a key ingredient used to flavour a variety of products such as ice cream, chocolate, beverages, cakes, custards, and other confectioneries. It is also widely utilized in the perfume industry and in its medicinal applications. Vanilla beans contain natural vanillin (1.3-3.8%), resins, fats, glucose, fructose, 26 volatile constituents, 144 additional volatile compounds, and moisture. “Vanilla sugar,” derived from these beans, is crucial in chocolate production. The curing process is essential for producing vanillin, the primary aromatic compound.

The distribution systems are designed to ensure that processed fluid milk is stored and transported under optimal conditions, maintaining its quality and freshness until it reaches consumers. An effective distribution system for processed fluid milk involves careful planning and execution to guarantee timely delivery, quality preservation, and customer satisfaction. Given that milk is a highly perishable product, it requires meticulous handling and strict temperature control. Technology plays a crucial role in preserving its integrity throughout the supply chain. The use of technology reduces human error, increase the efficiency of distribution operations, and lower operational costs by preventing idle resources through coordinated logistics for both outbound and inbound trips.
To address the specific demands of manufacturing, packaging, distribution, and transportation, integrated business process automation solutions are implemented. These solutions include following features:
• Identify and define the most efficient delivery routes, reducing transportation costs and ensuring timely delivery.
• Scheduling and monitoring of delivery routes to maintain optimal delivery speeds, and manage loading and unloading processes so as to minimize exposure to adverse conditions. Automated solutions and tools help maintain the required temperature conditions throughout the entire supply chain.
• Verify and document supplier practices to ensure that all partners in the supply chain adhere to the agreed-upon temperature standards. Store the temperature-related data to help in auditing and analysis, and continuous improvement of the cold chain process.
• Shelf life and expiration date management is a critical component in  the storage and transport of dairy products. Proper management ensures that dairy products remain safe for consumption and retain their quality throughout the distribution chain.

This chapter introduces human–wildlife conflict as a complex ecological and socioeconomic issue arising from interactions between wildlife and human communities. It examines the major drivers and patterns of conflict and considers their ecological and socioeconomic impacts. The chapter focuses particularly on the Indian context and discusses mitigation and management strategies, policy and governance, education, awareness, and community participation. It also considers future research and approaches for promoting coexistence. The chapter emphasizes integrated management strategies that address both wildlife conservation and the needs of communities living in and around forest landscapes.

3.1 Introduction

Rice is the main staple food for most of the world’s population and plays a key role to maintain food security of many countries. More than 90% of the rice production globally comes from Asia and also more than 90% of rice consumption is done in Asia (IRRI, 1997). In Asia, more than two billion people get almost 60-70 percent of their daily energy requirement from rice and its products (Yogeswari and Porpavai, 2018). As for India, since independence the country has witnessed a remarkable progress in rice production.

Introduction

The most significant commercially grown fruit crop in the country is the mango (Mangifera indica L.), which belongs to the Anacardiaceae family. It’s known as the “king of fruits.” Mango cultivars can be found in the greatest variety in India. Mango farming is thought to have begun in South East Asia. Since about 6,000 years ago, mango has been grown in south Asia.Mango is native to South Asia, from where it has been distributed worldwide to become one of the most cultivated fruits in the tropics.

The major mango-growing states are Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Bihar, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. Andhra Pradesh rank 1st in area, whereas Uttar Pradesh rank 1st in production and productivity. Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal and Gujarat together contribute for about 82% of the total production in India.

India to become the second largest fruit producer in the world, after china, with a production of 102481 thousands metric tonnes of fruits from an area of 6930 thousands hectares in 2020-21.The fruit is grown in India, the total area under mango cultivation was 2317 thousand hectare with an annual production of 20386 thousand metric tonnes.(NHB 2020-21).

Mango is well adopted in tropical and sub-tropical climates but it can be grown up to 1,100 meters above sea-level. There should not be humidity, rain or frost during flowering. The temperature between 24 and 270C is ideal for its cultivation. Higher temperature during fruit development and maturity gives better quality fruits. The areas expressed frequent showers and high humidity is prone to many pests and diseases. Thus it can grow best in regions with a rainfall between 25cm and 250 cm. Regions having bright sunny days and moderate humidity during flowering is ideal for mango growing.The farmers 92.20 per cent had problems of pests in their mango trees. The most common pests were the mango seed weevil 48.10 per cent, fruit fly 36.40 per cent, trips 1.30 per cent, aphids 1.30 per cent and the most common diseases were the powdery mildew 46.80 per cent, anthracnose 18.20 per cent and scab 2.60 per cent (Gitonga,2010).

Nervous system is composed of brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. The neuron is a basic functional unit of nervous system. Necrosis of neurons in brain is known as encephalomalacia while necrosis of neurons in spinal cord is termed as myelomalacia. If the necrosis occurs in grey matter it is known as polioencephalomalacia while necrosis of neurons in white matter is called as leukoencephalomalacia. There are three types of scavenger cells in nervous system known as microglial, oligodendroglial and astrocytes. Microglial cells surround the necrotic neurons and are known as satellite cells and the process is called as satellitosis. As the neuron dies, it is engulfed by microglial cell and this process is termed as neuronophagia. The necrosis of nerve fibers starts from myelin sheath and this change is called demyelination or Wallerian degeneration.

Introduction

Eye

Avian ocular apparatus includes eyeball, optic nerve, and accessary structures e.g., eyelids, lacrimal glands, and muscles etc. The eyeball is composed of three tunics namely the f ibrous (cornea and sclera), vascular (choroid, iris, ciliary body) and nervous tunic (retina). The histological structures of all these tunics are similar to mammals except the Bowman’s membrane (the basal lamina of corneal epithelium) is not distinct. Similar to the mammals, they also have three refractive media viz., aqueous humour, lens, and vitreous humour. The cornea does not refract light.

There are some important diseases and disease conditions of eye in poultry birds. The common aetiology of eye diseases in poultry birds has a wide range and includes heredity, nutritional deficiency, infections (microbial and parasitic) and managemental failure. Some of them are not seen often in the modern intensive rearing systems like the deficiency diseases while others are seen associated only with the intensive system housing of birds like the ammonia burns. The infectious diseases of only eyes, are not encountered in poultry birds. The diseases like the colibacillosis, pasteurellosis and Marek’s disease can affect eyes along with other body systems. Understanding of eye diseases of poultry birds requires basic knowledge of ophthalmic anatomy, concepts and terminology of eye associated pathological changes. The affected birds generally show ocular lesions and loss of condition due to starvation as they are unable to search for feed and water. Some conditions are reversible while others may be irreversible according to the extent of damage. Nutritional and managemental diseases in most cases are relatively easy to diagnose and manage, while infectious and hereditary diseases may require deeper investigation. Some diseases like endophthalmitis, eye notch syndrome and ophthalmopathy have been recorded but their causes could not be found out.

Introduction
In India, the government policy regarding the import and export of processed fruits is primarily regulated by the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA), which requires exporters to register with them to export notified processed food items, including processed fruits, and implement various export promotion schemes to facilitate this trade; the overall goal is to boost the export of agricultural and processed food products through the Agriculture Export Policy (AEP).
1. Key features ofAgriculture Export Policy (AEP)
i. Governing body: APEDA, established under the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority Act, 1985.
ii. Registration required: All exporters of processed fruits are required to register with APEDA to export their products.

The words “Economy” and “Ecology” have the same root. Both these words are derived from Greek ‘Oikos’ means house or house holds and both imply thrifty economical way of dealing with valuable resources. However, for some reason we seem to find these two words coming opposite each-other in many situations.

The destruction and degradation of the environment has become the greatest problem of our century. Our survival will depend on how well we are able to redefine our technologies and our relationship with nature. We therefore need a new sustainable eco-agri revolution and a country like India is in an ideal situation to give a model for that. In the new economy, good ecology will be fundamental to good business.

Abstract

The present study was conducted in Jhunjhunun district of Indian Thar desert to evaluate the soil fertility status and impact of different land uses on soil physico-chemical properties. Surface soil samples (0-30 cm depth) from rainfed crop lands, irrigated croplands, Orans (traditional grazing lands) and sand dunes were collected and analyzed for fertility. The pH and EC values of the soils ranged from 7.2- 9.7 and 0.02 – 2.5 dSm,^-1 respectively. The soil organic carbon (SOC) content in the soils varied from 0.03-0.62%, with the lowest average content (0.07%) in sand dunes, whereas average SOC under rainfed crop lands and Orans was 0.13 and 0.15%, respectively. Soils under irrigated crop lands recorded highest values for SOC (0.22%). Phosphorus deficiency was spread in the district across the land uses. However, soils under irrigated crop land showed phosphorus buildup due to carry over effect of continuous use of P fertilizers over a period of time.

One of the chief aspects of Entomology is the study of insects from the standpoint of their innumerable relations and activities affecting the interests of man. More than any other living organisms, insects have more intimate and complex relationship with man. It is well known that insects affect human interests both for good and bad. However, their injurious activities are of much greater concern to man than the beneficial aspects of their activities. Several insects are beneficial to man in several ways, both directly and indirectly and there are scores of other insects, which do not interfere with the interests of man in any way.

From the time man stepped into the domain of insects, a stifle has started between the insects and man. To meet his various demands for food, clothing, shelter and various other requirements, man cultivates various crops and raises many domesticated livestock. Unfortunately for man, insects also have started depending on these for their living. When the requirements for man and insects happen to be the same, a race is on for their survival and existence. Insects attack plants and livestock and cause extensive damage and economic loss. So, man considers such injurious insects as his enemy and to safeguard his interests tries to destroy them by various means. However, man’s supremacy and intelligence have not proved a match to the rapid propagation of insects and their various adaptations to withstand any hardship and adverse conditions. In the effort to gain an upper hand, it has not been possible for man to destroy the unwanted insects completely and the struggle is going on as a never-ending ordeal.

Nanomaterials are a field which takes a materials science-based approach to nanotechnology. It studies materials with morphological features on the nanoscale, and especially those which have special properties stemming from their nanoscale dimensions. Nanoscale is usually defined as smaller than a one tenth of a micrometer in at least one dimension, though this term is sometimes also used for materials smaller than one micrometer.

An aspect of nanotechnology is the vastly increased ratio of surface area to volume present in many nanoscale materials which makes possible new quantum mechanical effects, for example the “quantum size effect” where the electronic properties of solids are altered with great reductions in particle size. This effect does not come into play by going from macro to micro dimensions. However, it becomes pronounced when the nanometer size range is reached. A certain number of physical properties also alter with the change from macroscopic systems. Novel mechanical properties of nanomaterials are a subject of nanomechanics research. Catalytic activities also reveal new behaviour in the interaction with biomaterials.

Cowpea is a quick growing leguminous forage crop. It is usually grown mixed with cereal fodders and grasses to improve the nutritive value of the herbage. It contains 20 – 24 % crude protein, 43 - 49 % neutral detergent fibre, 34 – 37 % acid detergent fibre, 23– 25 % cellulose and 5 – 6 % hemicelluloses on dry matter basis. The digestibility of cowpea fodder is above 70%. Cowpea can be grown under partial shaded conditions. It is an excellent cover crop, which suppresses weeds and enriches the soil. Cowpea requires warm climate with good atmospheric humidity. It can be grown in kharif as well as in zaid season.

Nervous system is composed of brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. The neuron is a basic functional unit of nervous system. Necrosis of neurons in brain is known as encephalomalacia while necrosis of neurons in spinal cord is termed as myelomalacia. If the necrosis occurs in grey matter it is known as polioencephalomalacia while necrosis of neurons in white matter is called as leukoencephalomalacia. There are three types of scavenger cells in nervous system known as microglial, oligodendroglial and astrocytes. Microglial cells surround the necrotic neurons and are known as satellite cells and the process is called as satellitosis. As the neuron dies, it is engulfed by microglial cell and this process is termed as neuronophagia. The necrosis of nerve fibers starts from myelin sheath and this change is called demyelination or Wallerian degeneration.

Introduction

Natural evolution gifted the biological world a treasure of diverse bio-molecules that take part in various cellular activities. Proteins, one of the vital molecules of biological function are wisely folded polymers comprising 20 different aminoacids. Function of each protein is encoded in its aminoacid sequence. Aminoacid residues can indulge in bonded or non-bonded interactions depending on the environment. These inter residue interactions with in a polypeptide drive its folding in to a compact conformation from a linear molecule. Biochemical properties as well as the linear arrangement of the aminoacids determines the three dimensional structure of a protein. These determinants of defined structure directly or indirectly dictates functional fate of the folded protein also.

INTRODUCTION

Gloriosa is commonly known as glory or gloriosa lily. Gloriosa lilies have assumed an important place in flower trade and are widely grown for cut flower and tuber production both in USA and Europe. Gloriosa lily is the national flower emblem of Zambia. Their cut flower stems last well in summer heat and their buds take lon time to open after picking. The bright vibrant and intense, red, gold, lemon and pink flower colours and the lush green leaves of gloriosa lilies bring a sense of the tropics or festivity to room. They combine well with many other flowers from roses to heliconias. Gloriosa blooms make perfect posies for the office desk, bedside cabinets or small tables and shelves. The stiff stems of gloriosa and their ability to hold their form out of water for a longer time make them ideal for out of water floral installation work. They are light climbers and are suitable for training on low walls or trellis. With proper trailing they can also be grown in pots. Its flowers are fascinating and its tubers and seeds have great medicinal value. The tubers are rich in alkaloids. Colchicine has been obtained from various plant parts viz., young leaves, flowers, old leaves, tubers, seeds and stems.

1. Decorticator is used for shelling pods in

   a) Bhendi

   b) Maize

   c) Groundnut

   d) Sunflower

2. Debearders are used in processing of

   a) Barley

   b) Oats

   c) Wheat

   d) Rice

Pathology of Endocrine System

Pathology of Hypothalamus

The lesions in hypothalamus may cause diabetes insipidus characterized by polydipsia and polyuria with low specific gravity of urine. It occurs due to deficiency of antidiuretic hormone vasopressin.

Etiology/ Occurrence

• Lesions in hypothalamus and/or pituitary.

• Adenoma and adenocarcinoma of pituitary.

• Necrosis of hypothalamic nuclei due to larval migration.

Pasteurella and Mannheimia species are small (0.2 x 1-2 μm) non-motile, Gramnegative rods or coccobacilli. They are oxidase-positive facultative anaerobes, and most species are catalase-positive. Although non-enriched media will support their growth, these organisms grow best on media supplemented with blood or serum. They usually remain viable for only a few days on culture plates.
Some species, such as Mannheimia haemolytica, Pasteurella trehalosi and P. aerogenes can tolerate the bile salts in MacConkey agar. In smears from infected tissues stained by the Giemsa method, pasteurellae exhibit bipolar staining.
The family Pasteurellaceae comprises five genera, Actinobacillus, Haemophilus, Mannheimia, Pasteurella and Lonepinella. These genera share a number of common features and some organisms have been reclassified within these genera following deoxyribonucleic acid hybridization studies and 16s rRNA sequencing.
The pasteurellae are small (0. 2 μm by up to 2.0 μm), Gram-negative rods or coccobacilli. They are nonmotile,non-sporing, facultatively anaerobic, fermentative(except for P. anatipesrijer), oxidase-positive andcatalase - positive (except for P. caballi). Althoughunenriched media support their growth, they grow beston media supplemented with serum or blood.
Recent Changes in Nomenclature
Previous name Present name
Pasteurella ureae Actinobacillus ureae
Haemophilus avium Pasteurella avium
Pasteurella pneumotropica Pasteurella dogmatis
(Henriksen biotype)

Fodder serves as the foundational element of livestock nutrition within natural farming frameworks. Providing animals with a consistent, nutritious, and chemical-free fodder supply throughout the year is essential to maintaining their health, optimizing productivity, and ensuring long-term sustainability. In contrast to commercial models that often depend on externally sourced feed concentrates, natural farming promotes the cultivation of fodder on-farm through organic and regenerative practices. India’s fodder supply is typically divided into the following categories:
• Green Fodder: This includes grasses like Napier, Guinea, and Dinanath, as well as legumes such as Berseem, Lucerne, and Cowpea, and nutrient-rich tree leaves from Moringa, Subabul, and Neem.
• Dry Fodder: Comprising crop residues like wheat straw, paddy straw, maize stalks, and groundnut haulms.
• Pasture and Forest Grazing: Utilization of common lands, silvopasture systems, and forest areas for grazing.
• Fodder Trees and Hedges: Protein-rich varieties like Gliricidia, Sesbania, and Leucaena, which also enhance soil fertility.
In natural farming, fodder crops are grown without the use of chemical fertilizers or pesticides. Farmers enrich soil and seeds with preparations like Jeevamrit and Beejamrit. Mulching helps conserve soil moisture, suppress weed growth, and foster microbial activity. Intercropping and crop rotation with cereals and legumes maintain ecological balance and soil vitality. Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) methods integrate livestock with crop cycles to regenerate fodder naturally.
The establishment of fodder banks and use of staggered sowing patterns ensures a steady supply even during off-seasons. In arid regions, drought-tolerant and native fodder varieties are prioritized to uphold fodder security.