eChapters

Abstract
 
Opencast mining destroys the original land ecosystem and microbial community due to mining and stockpiling of mine rejects on adjoining land, which is a matter of great environmental concern. Mining creates formation of wastelands, formation of gullies, ravines, overburdens, reduced water infiltration and increased runoff. Reclamation of mined out areas is often difficult due to its chemical, physical and biological traits. Absence of topsoil is the most common feature of the mine spoils dumps. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), the synonym of VAM fungi, are important microbes of soil that form symbiotic association with most of the terrestrial plants on the earth. Observations led to use of legume microsymbionts as biological substitutes for fertilizers. AMF diversity increases with species diversity of plants as the potential number of association increases. Dominant arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi can prevent the invasion of non-mycorrhizal plants on land where they have established symbiosis and promote their mycorrhizal host.

The following various types of irrigation methods and their systems are used in crop production in greenhouses and plant nurseries.

1.Hand Watering

2.Perimeter Watering System

3.Tube Watering System

4.Drip Irrigation System

5.Overhead Spray System

6.Ebb and Flow System.

1. PRESENCE OF OBJECTIONABLE WEEDS

Objectionable weeds present in the seed crop of the respective species should be removed and destroyed before flowering. They should be verified during field inspection (Table 1). The maximum permitted limit of objectionable weed in seed crop is presented in table 2.

Relationship Between Plant and Water

Water is the most vital component of the living cells and the basis of plant feeding. Water is also characterized with extraordinary physical properties: it has high specific heat, biggest latent heat of vaporization, very high thermal conductivity and greatest surface tension. Large amounts of heat are tied up with water because of very high specific heat, which contribute to both climatic stability and to heat budgets of the plants and other organisms. Water molecules are integral part of living systems being the solvent for metabolites and structural component of proteins and nucleic acids. In fact, biological macro-molecules cannot exist in their complicated secondary folding or spiralled helixes without the support of hydrogen bonding within their water matrix. The water matrix is also critical for metabolic activity because its properties of hydration permit ready reactivity between molecules in solution as well as between enzymes and their substrates, and the biochemical processes are sensitive to tissue hydration. A reduction of only 20-25 per cent below maximum hydration is sufficient to cause metabolic malfunctioning of many enzymes. It is the substrate for photosynthesis and a product of respiration. Water also helps to buffer plant tissue against fluctuations in the external environment. Plant growth including leaf expansion, organ enlargement, reproductive development and stomata function are all clearly associated with moisture status. Hormonal changes (abscisic acid and cytokinins) in plant body occur with brief reduction in water potential. Water is the also major force in shaping the climatic patterns.

Research setting refers to the detailed information of an area where the study was conducted. The study area generally comprises of a particular geographical area viz. a state, district, block, or gram panchayat area selected according to the convenience of the investigator who possess adequate knowledge regarding the location, communication facility etc. of the locality so that he can easily approach each and every corner of the area for data collection. Besides the investigators must also have the basic knowledge about the socio demographic background of the people so as to have an easy understanding of their knowledge, attitude and behavior. This chapter is intended to present a brief description of the area in terms of social, economic, and agricultural aspects where the present study has been conducted.

1. Introduction
Aquaculture is one of the most rapidly expanding sectors in food production, making significant contributions to global food security and the economy. As natural fisheries resources are depleted, aquaculture has become an essential source of protein and employment for millions worldwide. With an increasing demand for seafood, the intensification of aquaculture systems has become necessary. This intensification, characterized by high stocking densities, increased fish production, and automation, has introduced a range of challenges that negatively impact the health and well-being of farmed fish and other aquatic species.
1.1 Stress in Aquaculture Systems
Stress is an inevitable part of aquaculture, particularly in intensive farming systems where fish are exposed to multiple environmental, biological, and anthropogenic stressors. Stress refers to a physiological condition where the normal homeostasis of an organism is disrupted due to external stimuli. In aquaculture, stress can arise from various factors, including changes in water quality parameters (such as dissolved oxygen, temperature, and pH), overcrowding, transportation, handling, and exposure to pathogens. The physiological response to stress can lead to a cascade of negative outcomes, including suppressed immunity, impaired growth, decreased reproductive success, and increased susceptibility to disease. If not adequately managed, stress can cause significant economic losses, affecting the sustainability and profitability of aquaculture operations.

1. Introduction
Chemists have been interested in using light as an energy source to trigger chemical reactions since many years. Under the photochemical conditions, molecules absorb light and get electronically excited. Consequently, in comparison to the ground state, the electronic distribution in the molecules is substantially altered in excited states. The reaction spectrum of a family of compounds is significantly expanded. In many cases, a complete synthesis can be greatly shortened by employing photochemical processes, and simple substrates can often yield complex, polycyclic, or highly functionalized molecules. This opens up new avenues in search of physiologically active compounds by providing new product libraries that are hard to obtain using ground-state reaction pathways. The photochemical reactions proved to be very fruitful for organic synthesis. It is because a large number of compounds having both industrial and academic importance required excited state for their synthesis (Glusac, 2016). The compound exhibits different chemical reactions in photochemically excited state (Oelgemöller & Hoffmann, 2016). The light induced chemistry has become a fascinating research area for last several decades. In 1912, Ciamician in his seminal work prophesied the necessity regarding the conversion of solar energy to chemical energy in future and its impact in future life for renewable energy (Oelgemöller & Hoffmann 2016). The need of photochemistry is of utmost importance for some fascinating reactions anticipated in future like splitting of water into oxygen and hydrogen, artificial photosynthesis and even photocatalysis (Fujishima & Honda, 1972; Chu et al., 2017). The familiar light driven reactions include cyclization of conjugated molecules to polycyclic compounds, photodissociations and both intra- and intermolecular proton transfer reactions (Li et al., 2010; Lan et al., 2005; Devine et al., 2008; Ashfold et al., 2006; Blank, 1994; Szabla et al., 2016). The photodissociation reactions occurs through ps* states, the s* orbital is situated around A-B bond (A and B are respectively a heteroatom and leaving group). However, the proton transfer reactions (PT) occur via charge transfer states. In this book chapter we will explore the synthetic utility and applications of Barton reaction.

Small ruminants are grazing mammals and this group consists of sheep (Ovis aries) and goats (Capra hircus).Advantage of these animals is their low cost, small size and marginal land use, which convert into high quality animal products. Sheep is a grazing animal and goat is a browsing animal. They are generally kept in flock. Therefore flock management is more important than the individual animal. Though, procedure of history taking and physical examination is almost similar to other animals, some peculiarities warrant a separate discussion. Sheep The general methods of history taking and physical examination of sheep are similar to cattle and goat starting from owner’s complaint (history), signalment of the patient, history of the ailing

ABSTRACT

This paper demonstrates the ability of FTIR for analyzing compositional structures of naturally occurring crystals namely gypsum and calcite. As these two crystals occur in a wide variety of geological environments and are susceptible to compositional and structural changes influenced by pressure, temperature, crystallization fluids and so many other factors, these are extensively studied by geoscientists for interpretation of paleoenvironment, modeling diagenesis of sediments and deducing sediment maturity for hydrocarbon exploration, study of these two crystals is important. Naturally occurring gypsum and calcite crystals collected from Cretaceous marine deposits of Ariyalur area were chosen for the present study as extensive occurrences of hydrocarbons are reported from offshore region of Cauvery basin and exploratory works are going on in the onland region. It is observed that the vibrational spectra of studied crystals show specific patterns in terms of stretching patterns of O-H, C-O, C=O, SO₄ and CO₂. As FTIR offers fast, cost-effective, non-destructive method of analyses of natural compounds, as it is proven useful, it can be utilized extensively in academic research and commercial exploration activities by geoscientists.

Keywords : Spectral characterization, calcite, gypsum, diagenesis, paleoclimate, hydrocarbon exploration.

Abstract

The electromagnetic processing instruments such as microwave is very commonly used at house hold level, hence understanding the behavior of food as well as factors affecting its dielectric properties becomes important. Dielectric properties (DEP) play an important in electromagnetic processing of food products and mainly depend upon the moisture content, physical properties, composition, temperature and power applied. Different methods have been used to determine the DEP of food material including parallel plate, coaxial probe, resonance cavity, transmission line and free space method. The selection of these methods is again based on several factors such as type of materials, accuracy of measurement, the scope of the research, frequency range, availability of equipments and resources. Present study thus summarizes the importance of DEP of food, influencing factors and the different measurement techniques.

Ornamental Plants are a real attraction to the aquarium tank. While some plants are both ornamental and functional, people usually use the term “ornamental plants” to refer to plants which have no value beyond being attractive, although many people feel that the attractive value itself is quite enough. They provide optimal habitat for the fishes especially for the fry (baby fishes). It maintains the ecosystem of the aquarium tanks by providing good oxygen, food and also acts as a good hiding place for the baby fish. Mostly all aquatic plants are very easy to grow and care. They are always good for gold fish and other similar fishes. There is a huge variety of plants. Ornamental plants are grown for decoration, rather than food or raw materials. They are most often intentionally planted for aesthetic appeal. However, ornamental plants also serve some less obvious uses such as for the purpose of fragrance, for attracting wildlife and for cleaning the air. Ornamentals encompass a wide array of plants. Commonly, ornamental plants are grown for the display of aesthetic features including: flowers, leaves, scent, overall foliage texture, fruit, stem and bark, and aesthetic form. The concept of ornamental plants is used for decorative purposes in aquariums, gardens, home gardens, landscape design projects, squares, parks etc.

Aquatic plants predominantly grow in water. They vary greatly in type, with some being quite similar to common land plants while others are quite different. Aquatic plants can be commonly classified into four types: algae, floating plants, submerged plants and emerged plants. Aquatic plants live in water. This means that they require being submersed to survive or that they can only grow and thrive in water. Many aquatic plants can tolerate being emerged, meaning they’re out of the water for short periods of time, but require immersion in water for long-term survival.

There are some plants that simply can’t tolerate being emerged at all, but this is rare. These plants can only live when fully immersed in water. Most macro- algae require total submersion in water for the span of its entire life. Most aquatic plants, however, have roots underwater but can only grow or flower in a partially emerged state. All plants, aquatic and otherwise, require sunlight, soil, gases and water to survive. Plants make their own food via the process of photosynthesis; this means that they need a source of energy to drive this biochemical process, and the sun provides a perfect one. Plants can carry on for periods without sunlight, just as animals can live on stored fuel for a while in times of need. The soil offers a place for the plant’s roots to take hold.

Air contains large amounts of the carbon dioxide gas (CO2), plants need to power photosynthesis, but aquatic plants have evolved to draw in CO₂ that is dissolved in water in relatively small amounts. Finally, plants need water to combine with the CO2 to complete photosynthesis by generating oxygen and glucose.

Anthracnose
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Pathogen attacks all aerial parts of plants and at any stage of their growth.
• Symptoms are circular, black, sunken spots with dark center and bright red orange margins on leaves and pods.
• In severe infections, the affected parts wither off.
• Seedlings get blighted due to infection soon after seed germination.
• Infected pods have discolored seeds (Fig.3).
Etiology
Scientific Classification
Kingdom : Fungi
Division : Eumycota
Sub- division : Deuteromycotina

1. Introduction
Omega-3 fatty acids are a vital group of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) recognized for their complex chemical structure, which is characterized by multiple double bonds within their hydrocarbon chains. This unique arrangement not only influences their physical and biochemical properties but also underpins their essential roles in various biological processes across a wide range of organisms. Omega-3 fatty acids are categorized into three primary types: alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). While ALA is predominantly found in plant sources, such as flaxseeds, chia seeds, and walnuts, EPA and DHA are primarily sourced from marine organisms, particularly fish and algae.
1.1 Importance of Omega-3 Fatty Acids
1.1.1 Nutritional Significance in Aquatic Organisms
In fish nutrition, omega-3 fatty acids are indispensable for promoting optimal growth, development, and overall health. These essential nutrients contribute to a multitude of physiological processes, including:
1. Cellular Structure and Function: Omega-3 fatty acids are integral components of cell membranes, influencing their fluidity and permeability. This is crucial for maintaining cellular integrity and facilitating the transport of nutrients and signaling molecules across membranes.

Introduction

Sugarcane based production system has to go a long way to turn hightech because of the existing technological gap in the irrigated agroecosystem. This has been realized more in the recent studies undertaken by social scientists. All the crops associated with the sugarcane based production need varietal introduction as well as the adoption of relevant crop management practices. Since the possibility of increasing area under sugarcane is remote in view of emerging low input high value crops, the projected target of 420 million tonnes by 2020 AD has to be achieved by enhancing the cane productivity and sugar recovery concurrently. The full exploitation of the existing improved sugarcane production technologies and development of a package of agro-techniques in the changing scenario of sugarcane based production system suiting to the socio-economic conditions of the farmers is as such the only master key to unlock the yield potential of sugarcane.

BE it enacted by Parliament in the Seventeenth Year of the Republic of India as follows:

Short Title, Extent and Commencement
    1.    (1) This Act may be called the Seeds Act, 1966.
        (2) It extends to the whole of India. 
        (3) It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by   notification in the Official Gazette, appoint, and different dates may be appointed for different provisions of this Act, and for different States or for different areas thereof.

Meat cutting and fabrication is a skilled process in which separation of carcass into wholesale primal cuts is done to facilitate meat trade requirements, consumer preference and easy handling to the butchers. The person engaged in cutting and fabrication of carcass cuts must be skilled and expert in their job. He/she must have the expert knowledge of carcass configurations and location of retail cuts in animal carcasses. To obtain good quality retail cuts, carcass should be essentially chilled and temperature of meat cutting room should be 15-20oC with relative humidity of about 80%.

Meristematic Tissues

These are composed of cells that are in state of division or retain the power of dividing. These cells are essentially alike and isodiametric. They may be spherical, oval or polygonal and their walls thin and homogeneous; the protoplasm in them abundant and active with large nuclei, and the vacuoles small or absent.

Classification of Meristems

Meristems are classified in different ways on the basis of certain factors.

A) According to their origin and development

1. Promeristem or primordial meristem

2. Primary meristem and

3. Secondary meristem.

Red Rot
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Practically all above ground parts are affected, but stalks are the main targets of stack.
• Spindle leaves (third or fourth)starts drying.
• Further stalks becomes discolored and hollow.
• Diagnostic symptom is th formation of red streaks, interrupted by white patches , inside the stalk.This can be seen by splitting the stalks longitudinally.
• White patches are characteristics of disease, not found in other stalk rots.
• After splitting opened the diseased stalk, a sour smell due to conversion of glucose to alcohol.
• Red longitudinal lesions are also seen on the mid ribs of the leaves on which black color fruiting body (Acervuli) are formed (Fig.1).