eChapters

Management of zoo and exotic animals in zoos are carried out in different ways. In the management of zoo, various cadres of personnel get employed and often, a team-approach is highly required and however, veterinarian is one of the important cadres in the zoo related personnel and veterinary interventions are highly required for management of feeding, housing, breeding and health of various species of wild fauna belonging to multiple taxonomical groups.

28.1 Introduction

The majority of eggs produced in the world are sold in-shell for consumers to utilize in the home in traditional ways or for baking. Traditionally, surplus eggs not required for the shell egg market (normally the smaller sizes) and downgraded eggs were turned into egg products. Today, farmers have specific contracts to produce eggs for further processing, and any egg that is damaged cannot be used for this purpose. There are essentially three types of egg products, liquid, dried, and frozen, with small markets for peeled, hard-boiled, and hard-boiled pickled eggs.

Introduction
Soil, the outermost layer of the Earth’s crust, plays a vital role in supporting plant life. It consists of a mixture of mineral and organic materials, with its depth varying from negligible to several meters across different regions. Subjected to continuous atmospheric influences, soil experiences erosion, primarily driven by the movement of wind and water. Erosion, originating from the Latin word “erodere,” meaning “to eat away” or “to excavate,” involves the detachment, transportation, and deposition of soil particles. The erosion process encompasses two main phases: the detachment of individual soil particles from the soil mass and their subsequent transportation by various agents such as water, wind, ice, or gravity, followed by eventual deposition. Finer soil particles are more susceptible to erosion compared to coarser ones, leading to the formation of sediment, the ultimate product of soil erosion. Sediment, which refers to fragmented material transported or deposited by natural agents, illustrates the sedimentation process, reflecting the sequence of the sediment cycle. Detachment involves the dislodgment of soil particles from the soil mass by erosive agents such as impacting raindrops and runoff water. Transportation entails the entrainment and movement of these detached soil particles (sediment) from their original location, often through stream systems, towards eventual deposition sites, which may include the base of slopes, reservoirs, or floodplains. Soil erosion presents a significant threat to human well-being by diminishing the productivity of agricultural land through the removal and washing away of essential plant nutrients and organic matter. The widespread distribution of sediment load globally underscores the pervasive impact of erosion on natural landscapes and ecosystems.

Pricing

Pricing goods and services is a critical job to maximize the profit of business organizations. Price is the most important determinant of the profitability of the business. Setting the right price can influence the quantities of various products or services that consumers will buy, which in turn determines the total revenue and the profit of the business. Price is the only element in the marketing mix of a firm that generate revenue.

The price of a product or service is the number of monetary units a customer has to pay to receive one unit of product or service (Simon, 1989).

As the population of the world rises, there is an increase in the demand for food production. Agricultural packaging helps farmers and makers to deliver food in the handiest approach with no loss. It eliminates unnecessary wastage of food during post-harvest treatment procedures, production process, storage, and transportation. It ensures short and long-term stability between the farmers and the consumers. Pesticides are completely toxic and reactive and thus need correct packaging. In agricultural packaging of pesticides, pouches with excellent quality standards are used that improve sealing and handling issues and avoid any malfunctioning. Ventilation is very important in agricultural packaging that permits the warmth and to cool quickly. Loss of water of the products should be minimized to let them stay fresh for a longer time.

Fisheries: A glance

The fisheries sector is a complex enterprise that includes capture and culture based fisheries, including mariculture, coastal aquaculture, freshwater aquaculture, and cold-water fish culture that contribute to the country’s food, health, economy, exports, employment, and tourism. Fisheries and aquaculture continue to provide millions of people with food, nutrition, revenue, and a means of subsistence. Fish is an inexpensive and high-quality source of animal protein, making it an excellent choice for reducing hunger and malnutrition in the country. In 2020, global aquaculture production reached a new high of 122.6 million tonnes, including 87.5 million tonnes of aquatic animals valued at USD 264.8 billion. Inland aquaculture produced 54.4 million tonnes, while marine and coastal aquaculture made 68.1 million tonnes. Over time, the Indian fishing industry evolved and became a significant socioeconomic asset for the country (FAO, SOFIA, 2022) India is the world’s third-largest producer of fish and aquaculture, accounting around 16% of total inland and 5% of total marine fish production. In 2021 22. The overall marine and inland fish production in India was 162. 48 lakh tonnes, with 121.21 lakh tonnes and 41.27 lakh tonnes coming from the inland and marine sectors, respectively. The fishing industry is vital to the national economy and is a major contributor to the country’s foreign exchange gains. India’s fish production has risen from 56.56 lakh tonnes in 2000-01 to 162.48 lakh tonnes in 2021-22.The majority of fish produced is for human consumption, and this proportion is predicted to increase from 89% in the base year (2016-18) to 91% by 2028 (OECD/FAO, 2019). In 2021-22, frozen f ish, cuttlefish, and squid contributed 6%, 3%, and 5% of total marine product export value, respectively.

ABSTRACT

Mangrove wetlands are well known as the dominant feature of the intertidal areas of the tropical and subtropical regions. Ecologically mangrove forests are important for their inherent biological productivity in the habitat and also by exporting organic matter produced into coastal waters. Apart from that mangroves act as bioshield against natural coastal hazards like cyclones, storms and tsunamis. Remote sensing coupled with GIS is an important tool in monitoring the coastal areas such as mangroves, where the physical survey is difficult and time consuming. Remote sensing has a wide range of products with higher spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions, the combination of which can be applied in different themes based on the requirement. The present study used multispectral, multi-temporal and high-resolution remote sensing data to map and monitor the distribution of mangrove forest of Pichavaram, south India over a period of 30 years. The study shows that the mangrove area had decreased from 628 ha to 411 ha from 1977 to 1994 and increased to 858 ha in 2006. The high resolution remote sensing data with 4 m spatial resolution was used to prepare the mangrove wetland map in 1:5000 scale.

Keywords : Mangroves, remote sensing, visual interpretation, IRS, IKONOS

In this chapter utilisation of habitat by the birds of the Silent Valley National Park has been analysed. Usually three questions are asked in the habitat utilisation studies (1) whether the species form well defined assemblages, quite apart from the geographical distribution patterns? (2) Whether ecologically or taxonomically similar species segregate by habitat? (3) Whether habitat characteristics attribute for the variations in the distribution or abundance (Wiens, 1989).

METHODS

Whenever a bird was observed in the period of study, its exact location and activities were recorded. The concept of habitat as described by Odum (1974), “the habitat of an organism is the place where it lives or the place where one would go to find it” is adopted for this study. Four main habitats were identified in the study area, depending on the vegetation type namely, Evergreen Forest (EF), Moist Deciduous Forest (MDF), Coffee Estate (CE) and Agricultural Area (AA). In each of the above habitats, “microhabitat” of birds was also recorded (Odum, 1974). Microhabitats identified at Silent Valley were the tree trunk, foliage, branch, bushes, dead tree, ground, grass and open area. Microhabitats identified at Mukkali were tree trunk, foliage, branch, bushes, ground, rocky areas and open area.

Introduction

Seasonal or annual fluctuation in weather patterns is termed as climate variability. However, climate change is a change in the mean state of weather statistic over three decades of time period. Climate change is exacerbating the challenges faced by the agriculture as well as horticulture sector. For last 10 years, Asia is facing the serious threats from climate change and variability such as tsunami, f loods and droughts. Extreme events are expected to have large negative impacts on crop productivity. The rise in temperature and reduction in rainfall under semi-arid environments are likely to reduce production of fruits, vegetables and flowers in the coming 20 years. The production and quality of fresh fruit and vegetable crops can be directly and indirectly affected by exposure to high temperatures and elevated levels of carbon dioxide and ozone. The rise in atmospheric CO2 levels due to global climate change and horticultural practices has both direct and indirect effects on secondary metabolite synthesis in plants.

20th Livestock Census of India

India has highest cattle population (192.49 million), buffalo population (109.85), in the world producing 24% is the highest milk yield (221.1 million tons in the year 2021-2022, and per capita availability was 444 gm/day) in the world (Source NDDB). India produces 43% of world buffalo meat production. Unfortunately, 80% cattle and 70% buffaloes are non-descriptive and yield very low amount of milk.

After independence Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed serval projects and plans for research and characterization of livestock species all over the country. Our country holds enormous genetic biodiversity in our domestic animals, result in increasing number of registered breeds in every decade. Breed registration Committee on its online meeting held on 5th December, 2023 approved registration of eight new breeds of livestock. This includes Aravali Chicken (Gujarat) Andamani Duck (Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Anjori Goat (Chhattisgarh), Andamani Goat (Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Bhimthadi Horse (Maharashtra), Andamani Pig (Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Macherla Sheep (Andhra Pradesh), Frieswal Cattle (Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand). Endangered, critical and vulnerable breeds of livestock also have been identified by ICAR which need more scientific research and multiplication breed.

Plant cells contain far more compounds than are produced by the basic metabolism. Terpenes, waxes, alkaloids and pigments are just some key words that illustrate what is meant. The term basic metabolism comprises all pathways necessary for the survival of the cells, while secondary plant products are such that occur usually only in special, differentiated cells and are not necessary for the cells themselves but may be useful for the plant as a whole. Examples are flower pigments and scents or stabilizing elements. Both metabolisms are overlapping since it is often not understood why a certain compound is produced. Furthermore, no typical cell exists so that some compounds may be necessary for the survival of some cells but not for that of others.

Arguments in support of important functions for plant secondary products are underlined by the organizational complexity and specificity which characterizes many aspects of their biosynthesis. Furthermore – with the very important exception of substances produced in response to stress or pathogen attack – much of secondary metabolism is reproducible from one individual of a species to another and, to a remarkable degree, produces the same principal compounds in broadly the same relative proportions. For example, an Atropa plant extracted for alkaloids can confidently be predicted to contain predominantly atropine, rather than its immediate precursor, tropine, or a more distantly-related alkaloid, nicotine – just as the passenger boarding a train for Mumbai at Anand can be reassured that his train will not terminate prematurely at a “precursor station” (Surat), or even adopt an “alternative pathway” (to Poona). On the other hand, the evolutionary circumstances leading to the development of atropine formation in Atropa, rather than to the formation of other alkaloids with comparable activity (for example, nicotine) remain substantially unknown. A similar question has been discussed regarding two families of plant pigments with apparently similar functions, the anthocyanins and the betalains. With regard to defense (and similarly but perhaps less obviously protection against ionizing radiation), a general hypothesis argues that plants evolved a broad defensive strategy based upon a diversity of antimicrobial and anti feedant substances from which, as a result of chance mutation, more potent substances conferring additional selective advantage from time to time arose. It is conceivable that in some cases enzymes evolved or became adapted to catalyse reactions of benefit which could already occur to some extent (though in a non-stereospecific manner) non-enzymically. Mutation will then have led to the development of modified enzymes able to catalyse reactions with new or different substrates, or to catalyse alternative reactions with existing substrates.

2.1 Communication comes from word

‘Communi’ means common. To establish commonness between two individuals is communication. Communication is to share information, idea, and attitude or tuned together for a particular message.

Introduction

Pastoralism involving rearing of different livestock species makes significant contributions to the economy of developing countries, both in terms of providing employment and income opportunities and in supplying nutrition to rural poor. Pastoralism generally has a mobile aspect, and movement of animal herds in search of fresh pastures and water is a key feature qualifying pastoralism. The term nomadic is used when mobility is high and in irregular patterns; transhumant when there are regular back-and-forth movements between relatively fixed locations; and sedentary for the rest. Pastoralists inhabit zones where the potential for crop cultivation is limited due to steep terrain, extreme temperatures and low and highly variable rainfall. Within this unpredictable, vulnerable and dynamic environment, they have developed successful mechanisms of adaptation to maintain an ecological balance between themselves and the natural environment. Thus, pastoralism is a successful strategy to support a population on less productive land that adapts well to the environment. Transhumance is the seasonal migration of livestock and pastoralists between higher and lower pastures.

Abstract

Four bread wheat varieties (PBW-138, PBW-299, PBW-343 and PBW-373), two of durum wheat (PDW-215 and PDW-233) and two of triticale (TL-419 and TL-1210) were milled to obtain 70 percent extraction flour.  The grains and the flour samples of all the varieties were evaluated for proximate composition, rheological properties and pretzel making. Physical properties of durum wheat were better followed by bread wheat and triticale. Durum wheat were harder, had higher grain weight than bread wheat and triticale.  Protein, ash, fat, total sugars and enzyme activity were higher in triticale flour than bread and durum wheat flours while durum flour had higher pigments (ppm, b-carotene). Bread wheat flour was intermediate between durum and triticale flours with respect to fineness. Rheological studies revealed triticale flour to be the weakest flour. Pretzels prepared by using optimized recipe and method revealed PBW-343 and PBW-373 best for pretzel making.

A. Answer the following questions

1.    What is balanced ration?

Ans: According to Morrison (1956), a balanced ration is one that furnishes nutrients in such proportions and amounts that it will properlynourisha givenanimalfor 24hours.The required nutrients must be contained in the DM provided during the 24 hrs period otherwise the ration can not be considered as balanced.

2.    What is ration?

Ans: A ration is the feed allowed for a givenanimal duringthe day of 24 hours.

3.    What is effective rumen degradable protein? (ERDP)

Ans: It has been defined as a measure of the total nitrogen supply that is actually captured and utilized by the rumen microbes for growth and synthetic purpose.

4.    How heat treatment causes protein protection?

Ans Heating causes denaturation of protein and this may be beneficial because of reduced ruminal degradation partly by blocking reactive sites for ruminal proteolytic enzymes and partly byreducingprotein solubility.

ABSTRACT

Remote sensing, especially high resolution satellite data has a major role to play in locating (localizing) mineral targets. The present study is carried out on exploration and discrimination of magnetite ore deposits of Tirthamalai region of part of Dharmapuri district, Tamil Nadu, India, using IRS P6 LISS IV high resolution satellite data. The applicable image processing techniques and associated put forth of field knowledge is used in the present study. The image processing classifications namely band rationing, principal component analysis and contrast enhancement are carried out in visualizing images using ERDAS Imagine 8.7 software. The visual interpretation of FCC of digital data shows that the raw pixel values of iron ore bands in the blue ranges 95 to 120, green ranges 85 to 125 and red ranges 55 to 75 and provided better delineation for iron formations.

The interpretation of satellite data shows that the iron ore band exhibits in dark color, linear shape, fine texture and sharp contact with associated rock types. To rectify and reduce misinterpretation all above image processing techniques are undertaken along with the detailed filed-check in the selected test sites using GPS 178 and delineated the in situ iron formations. The interpretations show that the occurrence of few more iron bands and weathered formations along with massive formations in the region traced on the imagery since the absorptions themselves are different. The availability spectral absorption of iron formation is inferred highly in visible and near infrared region (0.9-1 Ìm). Remote sensing high resolution satellite data proved that the satellite parameters are important criteria and play a vital role in mapping of low-grade iron ore deposits of the Tirthamalai region of Dharmapuri district of Tamil Nadu state.

India has witnessed a phenomenal increase in foodgrains production since Independence and from a food deficit state producing about 51 million tons in 195051 it become food surplus country with a record harvest of more than 250 million tons in 201112. This particular year also saw a remarkable record production of pulses at about 18.1 million tons. However, to meet the increasing demand of the continuously rising population about 23 million tons of pulses have to be imported every year costing the country about Rs.3000 crores in foreign exchange. Despite the changes in the dietary habits in which the large middle class has moved away from traditional cereals towards high value dairy, meat, fruits and vegetable products, pulses in India are still considered an important source of proteins, particularly for the poor. Pulses are not only an excellent source of protein (2040%), carbohydrates (5060%) and minerals (24%) but also provide calories almost equal to that of cereals energy to the tune of 300 to 540 Kcal/ 100g (Ofuya and Akhidue, 2005). Thus, pulses play an important role in achieving food and nutritional security for small and marginal farmers. However, the per capita availability of pulses has been declining over the time – it has declined from 60.7 gm/ day in 1951 to about 32 gm/day in 2010 – mainly due to stagnant production (except in recent years), rising demand for consumption and other uses. Pulses not only are used for consumption, but also play an even greater role in maintaining and enhancing soil fertility through nitrogen (N₂) fixation. Though the estimates of Nfixed by pulses depends on crop species, soil type, agroclimatic zone and crop management practices, it was reported that early, medium and long duration pigeonpea varieties fix 7, 55 and 69 kg/ ha¹, respectively, in Vertisols of Patancheru (Kumar Rao and Dart, 1987). Pulses ^N2 are grown not only as sole crops but also as intercrops and the biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) of pulses substantially benefits the associated or succeeding crops in terms of nitrogen contribution (1668 kg/ N₂ ha¹ for succeeding cereals). Thus on a conservative estimate, the BNF (@46 kg/N₂ ha¹) by pulses, excluding the intercrop area, alone amounts to 1.06 million tons annually.

Abstract

Onion (Allium cepa L.) and garlic (Allium sativum L.) are important members of the family Amaryllidaceae. Bulbs, which are the edible component in both onion and garlic grow underground and are of nutritional and medicinal importance. These underground bulb vegetables are affected by many diseases caused by different microorganisms like fungi, bacteria, nematode and viruses causing huge economic loss. Stemphylium leaf blight caused by Stemphylium vesicarium, is the major fungal disease affecting their productivity of the edible bulbs adversely.The fungus primarily attacks the leaves but can affect bulbs in storage. Initial infection is characterised by appearance of small greyish white oval spots on the leaves. These spots are often surrounded by a yellowish halo with irregular margins. Fungal pseudothecia may over-winter in contaminated plant material or may survive in the soil having plant debris and ascospores are the primary inoculums in the following season. Spores require rain or persistent dew to cause infection. This disease can spread rapidly when environmental conditions are favourable for spore development. Suitable integration of more efficient treatments like fungicides, bio agents in combination with appropriate cultural control provide better management of the Stemphylium blight disease

Introduction

Generally speaking, Conservation Agriculture (CA) includes minimum soil disturbance, permanent soil cover, and crop rotation (Hobbs, 2007). CA has been recognized as an efficient way for sustainably increasing crop yields in different countries (Hobbs et al., 2008; Pittelkow et al., 2015). Farmers following CA will face several managerial problems, and weed management is the most challenging (Wall, 2007; Giller et al., 2009; Farooq et al., 2011). Weed growth in an agroecological system and crop yields are inversely related; so, knowledge on weed dynamics and weed management are vital for achieving the possible yield gains in CA systems. There are few studies that examined both the direct and interactive effects of the 3 basic CA principles on weed dynamics (Chauhan et al., 2012; Giller et al., 2009; Farooq et al., 2011).

For comprehensive understanding the current topic, a diagrammatic representation of an annual weed’s life cycle (Fig. 1) will be useful and the same corresponds to four likely areas managing the weeds: