eChapters

If the 1990s were the decade of genomics, the first ten years of the new century are set to become the decade of proteomics. For the first time, the technologies of proteomics make it possible to generate quantitative protein expression data on a scale and sensitivity comparable to that achieved at the genetic level. This advance has major implications for our understanding of cellular organisation in health and disease and for pharmaceutical and agricultural biotechnology. Indeed, proteomics is already yielding important findings, across a wide range of applications. Most proteomics research, however, is directed towards the more proximal goal of investigating protein expression and function under specified physiological conditions.

The rapid evolution of proteomics has continued during the past years with a series of innovations in the core technologies of two-dimensional electrophoresis and mass spectrometry, and a diversity of productive research programmes. Well annotated proteomics databases are now emerging in a number of fields to provide a platform for systematic research, with particularly promising progress in clinical applications such as cardiology and oncology. Large-scale quantitative research, comparable in power and sensitivity to that achieved for gene expression, is thus becoming a reality at the protein level.

11.1 Total DNA Extraction by cTAB Method
    
11.2 Extraction, Purification Estimation of DNA
    
11.3 Potassium Acetate Procedure
    
11.4 DNA  Estimation
    
11.5 Restriction Enzymes

1. Introduction

Psyohrometrio is the study thermal and physical properties of gas-vapour mixtures. Ambient air is the mixture of dry air and water vapour and some pollutants. The moisture and pollutant content vary from place to place. The amount of pollutant and water vapour decrease with increase in the altitude. The air is completely dry above 10 km altitude. In many unit operations moist air is required and properties of air changes with temperature and pressure. The pollutants has to be removed before using moist air as a process air either by filtration or circulation. So it is necessary to determine the amount of water present in the air and effect of different unit operation on thermal properties and change in the heat and moisture content of mixture.The International Joint Committee of psychrometric data have fixed the composition of dry by mole fraction as: Oxygen: 0.2095, Nitrogen: 0.7803, Argon: 0.0093, Carbon dioxide: 0.0003. The following are the properties of the dry air

Molecular weight    28.966

Abstract

In view of the fast depletion of ground water reserves, uncertainty of rains and growing food demands due to human population explosion, efficient use of water available for crops has become highly relevant. In recent years, the use of superabsorbent polymers (saps) has been viewed as an innovative tool to improve water use efficiency in agricultural operations. Pusa Hydrogel, an indigenous superabsorbent hydrogel technology, has been developed for improving water use efficiency of agricultural and horticultural crops. They can absorb a minimum of 400 times of their dry weight of pure water and gradually release it according to the needs of the crop plant. So, it is used as soil moisture conservator and reduces number of irrigation. Because of their neutral ph, they do not affect nutrient availability, soil chemical composition, action of other agro chemicals, viz. fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, etc. Pusa hydrogels are found to improve the physical properties of soils. Increase in porosity results in improvement in seed germination and rate of seedling emergence, root growth and density, and reduced soil erosion due to reduction in soil compaction. It also increases biological/microbial activities in the soil, which increase oxygen/air and nutrient availability in root zone of the plant. So, ultimately it is helpful for increasing crop productivity. 

1. Introduction

Sea Buckthorn (Hippophae sp. ), a high altitudinal, thorny, temperate, deciduous, dioecious, actinorhizal shrub or small tree belonging to the Kingdom-Plantae, Clades-Angiosperms, Eudicots and Rosids, Order- Rosales, Family-Elaeagnaceae and native to Eurasean Countries like India, China, Russia, Nepal, Pakistan, etc. (Barik et al., 2016). SBT is having tolerance towards a wide group of pests and insects, can grow in extreme nutrient deficient conditions and temperature range of -40 °C to 40 °C. It contains more than 190 reported invaluable phytochemicals and has the potential for multidimensional use as food, fodder, medicine, fuel, and conservation of soil and bio diversity (Qinxiao and Hongyan, 2003; Barik et al., 2016). SBT berries, leaves, stem and root barks also contain nutrients and bioactive compounds which mainly include lipids, sugars, amino acids, organic acids, fatty acids, carotenoids (β-carotenes, lycopene, zeaxanthin), tocopherols (α β, γ, δ), sterols (ergosterol, campesterol), Vitamins (A, C, E and K), phenolic and flavonoid compounds (gallic acid, caeffeic acid, ferulic acid, isorhamnetin, kaemferol, quercetin, myricetin) and isoprenols (Tiitinen et al., 2005; Anderson et al., 2009; Barik et al., 2016). All these studies are primarily based on the prominent SBT species Hippophae rhamnoides. However, Sea Buckthorn (Hippophae salicifolia) of North East India is an underutilized non-conventional plant and its potential is not yet fully explored. Very scanty literatures are available on the identification, documentation and preliminary qualitative phytochemical characterization of SBT from North East India (Basistha et al., 2010; Pradhan et al., 2015). But there is no any report on systematic qualitative phytochemical characterization of all the plant parts of SBT from North East India in general and SBT of Arunachal Pradesh in partcular.

1. Introduction

Jackfruit is the largest edible tree borne fruit in the world (Baliga et al., 2011). According to Haq (2006) India is considered as the birth place of jackfruit. The major jackfruit producing states in India are Assam, Tripura, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, the foothills of the Himalayas and South Indian States of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Jackfruit is a fruit prized in some areas of the world and allowed to go waste in others. According to Sidhu (2012) the extent to which jackfruit is being wasted in India is not exactly documented however, the wastage is approximately 75%. On an average a fully developed fruit may weigh 10-25 kg. Seeds occupy around 10 to 15% of the total weight of the jackfruit (Bobbio et al., 1978). It is reported that jackfruit seeds contain high amount of protein, fiber and carbohydrate (Ocloo et al., 2010). The seeds are viable for not more than three or four days (Sidhu, 2012). According to Abedin et al. (2012) the industrial utilization of jackfruit pulp are varied but the seeds are discarded from those food industries. Moreover, mature fresh seeds cannot remain fresh for long as they tend to germinate easily. So, converting jackfruit seed into flour is an option in order to increase the shelf- life of the seed and can substitute various cereal based flours for developing food products. Dumpling is a type of food which is made out of small pieces of dough wrapped around a filling that may include vegetables, meat, or other ingredients mixed together.

Natural disasters are of meteorological or hydrometeorological origin. Disasters such as earthquakes and tsunamis are occasional, but rainfall-related hazards, flood or drought, are very frequent and thus call for proper monitoring of large-scale rainfall variation, and better manage- ment and planning to combat the problem(s). Variation in rainfall is very large spatially and temporally compared to any other atmospheric parameter, such as pressure or temperature. The large temporal variability in the Indian rainfall has produced frequent flood/drought and periods of above/below normal rainfall for several centuries past. Areas of high rainfall and runoff are flooded in the summer monsoon season whereas others face water stress and drought conditions. The influence of global warming on rainfall variations over India is reported in numerous observational (Singh et al., 1991, 1992) and modelling studies (Lal, 1994). 

Introduction

Rainfall is the principal source of water in arid areas, which augments soil moisture, groundwater and surface flows. Agriculture and several of the other economic activities in arid areas depend on rain. This region is devoid of any well defined perennial river system. Under such circumstances every drop of water becomes very precious. Of the total water use about 85% of water is used for irrigation and remaining 15% is used for drinking, industrial and other purposes. About 65% of irrigation water and 30-40% of drinking water is subjected to serious losses. Hence, increasing water use efficiency coupled with increasing availability of water through rainwater harvesting and management is of prime importance for sustainable development of arid areas. Rainwater harvesting, its conservation and efficient utilization can solve problem of water scarcity to the greater extend. Rainwater harvesting in small ponds (nadis), underground tanks (tankas), Khadins (Low lying areas) etc. is an age-old tradition in arid zone of Rajasthan. These traditional rainwater harvesting structures vary in design, shape and size. These traditional methods have undergone several changes for being more economical and efficient. Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur since its inception in year 1959 is continuously working for development and refinement of water efficient techniques for crop production, individuals and for the communities for development in hot arid zone of India.

In our previous chapters, we have discussed various sampling designs or techniques such as simple random sampling, stratified sampling, systematic sampling and cluster sampling recently we have discussed unequal probability sampling i.e., probability proportional to size sampling. In all these sampling designs the variable of interest (generally there is only one variable of interest) which we have considered and perform our estimation based on that single variable. There are some other variables which are related to our variable of interest and if we utilize those variables, we may gain some efficiency in our estimator i.e., if we take some correlated variables with our variable of interest or study variable by this, we can enhance our estimation. The variable which is correlated with the study variable is usually known auxiliary variable or supporting variable or supplementary variable or benchmark variable. This auxiliary variable is utilized in two stages either in the design stage or estimation stage.

Graunt (1662) was the first who used auxiliary information to estimate the population size of England. After this Laplace used auxiliary information for the estimation of the population in France.

Introduction

Development of feeding strategies that are more efficient and more eco-friendly by reducing waste is one of the key priorities in poultry production today. Thus, there is a focus on reduction of the crude protein content in a diet fortified with adequate amounts of currently available free amino acids (e.g. L-Lys, DL-Met, L-Thr, L-Val and L-Trp) in order to optimize protein utilization efficiency while maintaining production performance and reducing nitrogen excretion in chicken. Baker et al (1978) reported that animals do not need dietary protein to provide amino acids. Since, then numerous studies have been conducted to study amino acid requirement of poultry. They are components of tissue proteins and provision at insufficient levels leads to reduced protein synthesis. Provision of the different essential amino acids is therefore a prerequisite for maintaining optimal rates of protein synthesis. However, optimizing amino acid nutrition requires consideration of the different functions of amino acids, which are recognized to have several significant influences. Amino acids are precursors of important molecules.

1.    Introduction

2.    Materials for Boat Construction

3.    Engines and Propellers

4.    Fuel Saving

5.    Development of Computer Aided Designing (CAD)

6.    Type and Size of Boats
    
    6.1    Trawlers
    6.2    Otter trawlers
    6.3    Side trawlers
    6.4    Stern trawlers
    6.5    Freezer trawlers
    6.6    Purse seiners
    6.7    Long liners
    
7.    Fishing Equipment
    
    7.1    Echo sounders and sonars
    7.2    Global positioning system (GPS)
    
8.    Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS)
    
    8.1    Advantages of the GMDSS over the current system
    8.2    Implementation of the GMDSS requirements
    8.3    The main types of equipment used in GMDSS
    
9.    Distress Alert Transmitters (DAT)
    
10.    Automatic Identification System (AIS)
    
11.    Handling Equipments
    
    11.1    Advances in deck machinery
    11.2    Automated long line system
    11.3    Automated squid jigging machines
    11.4    Net haulers
    11.5    Net drums
    11.6    Gantries
    11.7    Stern ramp
    
12.    Side Thruster
    
13.    Satellites and Remote Sensing
    
14.    Vessel Monitoring System (VMS)
    
References

Introduction

Minerals are essentially required for growth maintenance, egg and meat production, health, nutrient metabolism, physiological function, reproduction, skeletal growth and development and maintenance of normal immune function. There are 25 essential minerals, seven are major minerals, as they are present in relatively higher amount in the body than the trace minerals and need to be supplemented in higher quantities in the feed. These major minerals are calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, chloride, potassium, and sulphur. The micro minerals are present in small quantities in the body and their requirements in the diet are below 100 mg/kg. The 18 trace minerals are iron, copper, zinc, manganese, iodine, selenium, cobalt, molybdenum, chromium, tin, vanadium, fluorine, silicon, nickel, arsenic, aluminium, lead and rubidium. Among these, the first nine micro minerals have been identified to play a significant role in birds. Total minerals in diet include feed sources and supplementary sources. 

After the Second World War, the 1940’s and 1950’s was the wide spread establishment of artificial insemination and the introduction of frozen semen in cattle breeding.  In the late 1960s came revolution in measurement of hormones in the body fluid with the introduction of sensitive radio-immuno-assay (RIA) techniques, which provided a new approach to early pregnancy diagnosis, emerging around the same time were early forms of the ultrasonic which could also employed in the detection of pregnancy. The 1970’s were to see embryo transfer and freezing of embryos in cattle becoming commercial realities and their incorporation into increasingly effective breeding improvement programme with the availability of prostaglandins (PGs) and Gonadotrophin releasing hormones (GnRH) that decade also witnessed new possibilities for estrum control in cattle and horses.  Few years later came the ability to produce the cattle embryos in the laboratories in large numbers and at low cost.

Water is the most critical component of life system. Irrigation plays vital role in rising and stabilizing yield and maintaining quality of fruit crops grown in tropical or sub-tropical climate. Micro irrigation is one of the modern and advanced methods of irrigation which is becoming popular in areas having problems like water scarcity and poor quality of water. Since the competition for water between agricultural and non-agricultural sector is increasing day by day, the efficient management of water resources is very essential to meet the water requirement. It is anticipated to reduce water use for agriculture by 70% in the coming decade, where the present day share is 80%. Demand for water is increasing in non-agricultural sectors like industry, energy, domestic use etc. Hence, policy makers and researchers consider water as the main obstacle for growing enough food crops in the coming years. In India where population is increasing at alarming rate, the area under irrigation should go up from 60 million hectares to 114 million hectares by the year 2050. In this context, micro irrigation plays a major role under limiter water agro ecosystem.

Introduction

India is a rich center of plant diversity due to varied climatic conditions as well as soil qualities which provide a better platform for the diverse plant groups. In India around 45000 plant species are spread over the area (Mayers, 1988). These plant species multiply and produces the new plant. The multiplication of plants is termed as propagation and the art of propagation is as old as civilization of human being. The history of civilization began with the propagation and growing of plants. Plant propagation was in practice in pre-historic period. However, the propagation process has got commercial popularity only recently. The success in plant propagation depends on a thorough knowledge of the growth of plants, choice of suitable method and technical skill. In nature, plants multiply naturally to perpetuate themselves. Now-a-days, propagation practices have been totally modernized and became advanced from field to in vitro. Variation in plant propagation can be observed in the nature like some plants are producing many seeds for future generation with their unique type of dispersal mechanism. Among a large

Introduction : Need to Change

During the era of Green Revolution, India remarkably achieved self-sufficiency in food production with the introduction of high-yielding varieties, extension in the irrigated cultivable land, high use of chemical fertilizer such as Urea and other sources of NPK fertilizers and increase in cropping intensity.During these processes, relative contribution of organic manures as a source of plant nutrients declined substantially. Due to heavy application of chemical pesticides an increase in resistance of insect pests has also been noticed for most of the regular used plant protection chemicals. Health hazards associated with intensive modern agriculture, such as pesticides residues in food products and groundwater contamination are matter of concern. In the progress of green revolution technologies and chemical dependent nutrient management has declined the overall productive capacity of the soil due to no judicious fertilizer use. Such concerns and problems faced by modern-day agriculture gave birth to new concepts in farming, such as organic farming, natural farming, biodynamic agriculture, donothing agriculture, eco-farming, etc. The essential feature of such farming practices imply, i.e., back to nature.

1. Introduction
The era of genome sequencing was exploded by the upcoming of Human Genome Project (1989), coordinated by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institute of Health to identify all the approximately 20,000-25,000 genes, 3 billion chemical base pairs, store this information in databases, improve the tools for data analysis, transfer related technologies to the private sector, and address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the project. The dawn of genome sequencing began with Fredric Sanger’s sequencing almost twenty-five years ago. The time consuming and labor intensive gel preparation and their running, as well as the cost of such experiments replaced the conventional sequencing by “shotgun” sequencing.

1.    Modern Packaging Systems
    1.1    Modified atmosphere packaging
    1.2    Active packaging-principles and applications
    1.3    Aseptic packaging
    1.4    Shrink packaging
    1.5    Vacuum packaging
    1.6    Thermal processing
    1.7     Retort pouch packaging
    
2.    Packaging of Fish and Fishery Products
    2.1    Packaging materials used
    
3.    Packaging Requirements for Fish and Fishery Products
    3.1    Packaging of fresh fish
    3.2     Packaging of processed seafoods
    
Suggested Reading

Introduction

India has about 18% of the human and 15% of the livestock population of the world that needs to be supported from only 2% of the earth’s land area. The per capita land availability has declined from 0.89 ha in 1951 to 0.37 ha in 1991 and is likely to be 0.20 ha by 2035 (Singh, 2005). It is estimated that demand for green and dry fodder would be short by 64 and 24% by 2020, while it was short by 62 and 22% in 2005. The current sustainable production of firewood is 17 million tons from forest areas and 98 million tons from non-forest areas, leaving a net deficit of 86 million tons which is removed illicitly from forest and scrub formations all over the country. Nearly 32.67% of India’s geographical area is affected by various forms of soil erosion and land degradation. The area reported to be degraded in India varies widely, ranging from 63.9 million ha (Anonymous, 2000) to 187.70 million ha (Sehgal and Abrol, 1994), due to variations in approaches used to define degraded lands. The area under wastelands is estimated to occupy 63.85 million ha which is 20% of the country’s geographical area.