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B.anthracis causes anthrax in animals and Wool sorter’s disease, hide porter’s disease, Malignant Pustule in humans. B.cerus causes food poisoning in humans. Other bacillus in this group is non-pathogenic and they are called as anthracoids. B.licheniformis is an emerging pathogen and it is implicated in sporadic abortions in cattle and sheep.
Systematics
Domain : Bacteria
Phylum : Firmicutes
Class : Bacilli
Order : Bacillales
Family : Bacillaceae
Genus : Bacillus
Species : B. anthracis, B. cereus, B. subtilis, B. mycoides,
B. megaterium, B.mesentricus
Family Characters
They are gram +ve large rods, aerobic (facultative anaerobic), endospore forming, capsulated, mostly catalase positive and fermentative organisms. They are motile by peritrichous flagella.
Bacillus Anthracis
History
• Discovery of the anthrax bacillus is credited to Davaine and Rayer (1863 –1868).
• Considerable historic interest attached to anthrax bacilli;

The application of back-cross breeding first proposed by H. V. Harlan and M. N. Pope in 1922 provides a precise way of improving varieties that excel in a large number of attributes but are deficient in a few key characteristics. F. N. Briggs too started an extensive back-crossing programme to develop bunt resistant varieties of wheat in 1922. As the name implies, the back-cross method of breeding makes use of a series of back-crosses to the variety to be improved during which the character or characters in which improvement is sought is maintained by selection. At the end of back-crossing, the gene (or genes) being transferred will be heterozygous. Selfing at the end of last back- cross produces homozygosity for this gene pair and coupled with selection will result in a variety similar to the well adapted and recurrent parent but superior for the particular characteristic for which improvement programme was initiated.

In back-cross method of breeding, the adapted and highly desirable parent is called the recurrent parent and the source of desirable character being transferred is called as donor parent. It is most effective and easy to apply when the missing trait is qualitatively inherited, dominant and produces a phenotype that is readily observed in a hybrid plant. The procedure for transferring a recessive trait is similar to that for dominant trait but involves an additional step of selfing. Back-crossing is also used to transfer entire sets of chromosomes in a foreign cytoplasm to create a cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) genotype as has been practiced in maize, onion and wheat, etc. This is done by crossing the donor (of chromosomes) as male until all donor chromosome are recovered in the cytoplasm of the recurrent parent. Back-cross breeding has also been used to develop isogenic lines (lines that differ only in alleles at a specific locus) for traits like disease resistance and plant height, etc.

Backcross breeding is defined as system of breeding whereby recurrent backcrosses are made to one of the parents of a hybrid, accompanied by selection for a specific character or characters. It is basically applicable to self-pollinated crops and is precise way improving varieties that excel in large number of desirable attributes but lack in a few characteristics. This method makes use of a series of backcrosses to the variety to be improved during which character for which improvement is sought is maintained by selection. At the end of the backcrossing, the gene to be transferred remains in heterozygous condition and selfing after the last backcross produces homozygosity for the gene under transfer. As a result, the improved variety will remain like recurrent variety in terms of yield, adaptability, quality features, etc. will be superior for the character which was planned to be transferred from the donor parent.

The application of backcross breeding in plants was first proposed by H.V. Harlan and M.N. Pope in 1922. In principle, backcross breeding does not improve the genotype of the product, except for the substituted gene(s).

Plant biotechnology can be defined as the introduction of desirable traits into plants through plant tissue culture and genetic engineering techniques. The recombinant DNA technology is used to modify the expression of genes already present in the plants or to introduce new genes of other species with which the plant cannot be bred conventionally.

Globalization of economies and liberalization of trade has led an urgent need for prioritizing the potential areas for investment in order to earn handsome amount of income. Even the entrepreneurs, small as well as marginal farmers aspire to take advantage of global opportunity. Diversification to horticultural crops has been found to be best option as they make more profit, generate additional employment for rural masses and conserve natural resources. Agriculture plays a vital role in the Indian economy. Over 52 per cent of the rural households depend on agriculture as their principal means of livelihood. But unfortunately Indian farmers in general are small and marginal land holders with poor resources and realizing income mainly from cereal based production system, which is insufficient to improve their living standards. Agriculture, along with fisheries and forestry, accounts for one-third of the nation’s GDP and is its single largest contributor (www.indianbusiness.nic.in). GVA at Basic Prices for 2019-20 from ‘Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing’ sector is estimated to grow by 2.8 per cent as compared to growth of 2.9 per cent in 2018-19. The GVA estimates of this sector are based on 1^st advance estimates of agricultural production during Kharif season of 2019-20 obtained from the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmer Welfare. For Livestock sector, estimates of production of major livestock products (i.e. Milk, Egg, Meat and Wool) obtained from the Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying and Fish production data obtained from Department of Fisheries have been used. The crops including fruits and vegetables account for about 56 per cent, the livestock products 30 per cent and forestry & fisheries 14 per cent share of GVA in total GVA of ‘Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing’ sector [As per the estimates released by National Statistics Office, Ministry of Statistics and programme Implementation, GoI, 2020]. Agricultural exports constitute a fifth of the total exports of the country. In view of the predominant position of the Agricultural Sector, collection and maintenance of Agricultural Statistics assume great importance. In 2018-19, India achieved a record food grain production of 285.17 million tonnes beating the previous year’s (2017-18) 285.01 million tonnes, according to data provided by Department of Economics and Statistics (DES). Also, agricultural profitability has increased over the last decade with record increases in MSPs (minimum support prices) for agricultural produce for all covered crops.

A key challenge for the years to come is feeding a rapidly growing human population while lowering the impact of food production on the environment. This is particularly true for low and middle-income countries where the demand for animal protein is likely to rise and further increase several folds in existing environmental changes (e.g., droughts, floods, extensive wildfires) have in recent years led to major food crises. To achieve these goals, food production not only needs to be increased, but most of all, good husbandry practices must be followed to reduce its negative impacts on the environment. Several studies have suggested that shifting the human diet towards increased consumption of f ish and seafood could be a solution to the need for protein that would sustain human and environmental health. In fact, fish and seafood consumption is forecast to increase by 27% on the horizon of 2030, mostly sustained by the aquaculture sector, which is expected to grow by 62% during the same period. The aquaculture industry contributes significantly to livelihood, food security, and poverty alleviation, with over 100 million people estimated to rely on aquaculture for their living. Fish is a cheap source of animal protein, and the current per capita consumption of fish in India is around 9 kg per annum, which is compared to the 11 kg recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO). Presently, the contribution of the fisheries sector to the gross domestic product (GDP) and agriculture GDP has been estimated to be 1.2 and 4.2%, respectively.

The transformation of global agriculture, especially in the context of liberalized markets and increasing corporate involvement, has placed contract farming at the forefront of rural development discourse. Over the past few decades, contract farming has emerged as a strategic approach to address key challenges faced by smallholder farmers, including market uncertainty, lack of inputs and limited access to extension services. Particularly in the post-World Trade Organization (WTO) era, developing nations have witnessed a surge in contract farming initiatives due to their potential to ensure a consistent supply of high-quality produce, stabilize farmers’ incomes and integrate stallholders into the commercial agri-food economy. The appeal of contract farming lies in its dual benefits. For agribusiness firms, it reduces procurement risks and ensures better control over quality and production processes. For farmers, it offers pre-agreed pricing, input support and reliable market access, thereby mitigating the common risks associated with price volatility, resource scarcity and technical gaps. However, for contract farming to function effectively and deliver on its promises, certain preconditions must be met. A profitable market is the foremost requirement, as sponsors will only invest in regions where long-term returns are feasible. The physical and social environment must also be conducive to agricultural productivity and farmer cooperation. This includes factors such as geography, soil fertility, access to irrigation, infrastructure quality (roads, communication, electricity), land availability and cultural compatibility between the stakeholders. Government support is another critical pillar, encompassing both legal backing to enforce contracts and policy incentives that promote investment and risk-sharing. Furthermore, well-designed contract specifications-covering pricing structures, input provisions, managerial responsibilities and land-use terms-are essential to ensure transparency, enforceability and mutual trust. Despite its transformative potential, contract farming is not a one-size-fits-all solution. Its success hinges on a careful alignment of stakeholders’ interests, contextual understanding and supportive institutional frameworks. The

Backwardation : When a commodity is valued more highly in a spot market (that is, when it is for delivery today) than in a futures market (for delivery at some point in the future). Normally, interest costs mean that futures prices are higher than spot prices, unless the markets expect the price of the commodity to fall over time, perhaps because there is a temporary bottleneck in supply.

Balance of payments : The total of all the money coming into a country from abroad less all of the money going out of the country during the same period. This is usually broken down into the current account and the capital account. The current account includes : *visible trade (known as merchandise trade in the United States), which is the value of exports and imports of physical goods; *invisible trade, which is receipts and payments for services, such as banking or advertising, and other intangible goods, such as copyrights, as well as cross-border dividend and interest payments; *private transfers, such as money sent home by expatriate workers; official transfers, such as international aid. The capital account includes : *long-term capital flows, such as money invested in foreign firms, and profits made by selling those investments and bringing the money home; *short-term capital flows, such as money invested in foreign currencies by international speculators, and funds moved around the world for business purposes by multinational companies. These short-term flows can lead to sharp movements in exchange rates, which bear little relation to what currencies should be worth judging by fundamental measures of value such as purchasing power parity. As bills must be paid, ultimately a country’s accounts must balance (although because real life is never that neat a balancing item is usually inserted to cover up the inconsistencies).

Balanced budget : When total public-sector spending equals total government income during the same period from taxes and charges for public services. Politicians in some countries, such as the United States, have argued that government should be required to run a balanced budget in order to have sound public finances. However, there is no economic reason why public borrowing need necessarily be bad. For instance, if the debt is used to invest in things that will increase the growth rate of the economy—infrastructure, say, or education—it may be justified. It may also make more economic sense to try to balance the budget on average over an entire economic cycle, with public-sector deficits boosting the economy during recession and surpluses stopping it overheating during booms, than to balance it every year.

³Ex-Head & Principal Scientist, Dairy Extension Divison, Karnal, Haryana

INTRODUCTION

Backyard poultry production is an age old practice in rural India. Rural poultry farming in India contributes to about 40% of the national egg production. In ancient time poultry birds were reared for different purposes such as for its fighting ability. In old civilization, the cocks are known for their morning alarm and the selection is also done for these traits. Their fighting ability is more responsible for their spread than there nutritive value of the chickens. Backyard poultry farming is now gaining considerable momentum in the country and enables rural community to participate, in the economic, political and social sustainable development of the rural communities.

Backyard poultry farming is being recognized as important component of socio- economic improvement among the weaker section of society; specially rural youth, landless labour, small and marginal farmers. Backyard poultry generates self-employment, provides supplementary income with protein rich food at relatively low cost. Backyard poultry farming is the one among different enterprises in the present situation which gives some assured income to rural youths of the country. Before 1950, poultry keeping in India was largely a backyard venture. During last 3-4 decades Indian poultry industry has shown excellent growth. Poultry farming is a profitable venture as a means of livelihood and income prosperity for rural youth and farmers. The small and marginal farmers may choose backyard poultry farming alternative method for generating good income with their limited land and water use. Keeping in view of demand of poultry eggs and meat in the country and its potential for income and employment generation among rural youth, there is a need to increase the poultry production in the country.

Backyard farming is an unorganized sub sector of poultry industry. India has nearly 60 percent of its population living in rural areas. However, in the present scenario most of the commercial poultry production is concentrated in urban and semi urban areas due to high demand. Only 25 percent population living in urban area consumed about 75-80 percent of eggs and poultry meat. Nonavailability of poultry products and low purchasing power of the rural people devoid them of access to the highly nutritious products like egg and meat, thereby, resulting in malnutrition. Free range and small scale semi commercial
back-yard poultry production can be advantageously promoted in rural areas, as the large commercial poultry production continues to be concentrated in urban and semi-urban locations. It can be used as a powerful tool for alleviation of rural poverty, eradication of malnutrition and creation of gainful employment in vast rural areas (Sharma and Chatterjee, 2009; Rajkumar et al., 2010).
The most basic and simple backyard production system involves a few hens and a cockerel is essentially a closed system. Home-produced fertile eggs arehatched to provide replacements, birds feed by  scavenging or are provided with household scraps and crop by-products; there are virtually no veterinary inputs and the remaining eggs and meat produced are consumed within the household. Such very simple subsistence poultry production systems are probably quite rare. Producers with even slightly larger flocks, generate cash income from the sale of eggs and birds within the local community. Transactions may take place directly between producers and consumers, but traders and other market intermediaries may be involved, selling on to other sectors of the poultry industry. Village or backyard production systems are widely distributed and exist in both rural and urban areas. It is estimated that today in India, about 18 percent of total poultry output is derived from backyard production. 

Importance of Backyard Poultry Farming in India

Commercial chicken production in India has undergone a remarkable change in the last three decades. While India is among the top five chicken producing and top seven duck producing countries in the world, the gap between the demand and production is still alarming. Average per capita availability of eggs in big cities is 170 while it stands at 9 eggs per annum in the rural areas. Though the commercial poultry sector has made a stupendous progress over the years, the conventional free and backyard poultry farming remain neglected. Backyard poultry farming contributes around 11% to the national production while in certain states like U.P. around 60% of the poultry population is indigenous fowls reared under backyard system. The backyard sector contributed to 23 per cent of the total egg production in 2005-06.

Commercial chicken production is capital intensive and is generally concentrated in and around urban areas. There is a wide disparity in consumption of the poultry products between urban and rural population. Around 75% of country’s population living in the rural areas has limited access to the protein rich poultry products. Protein deficiency is quite common in the diets of rural people. Adoption of rural poultry farming may ameliorate the high incidence of protein hunger in growing children and pregnant women.

It has been seen that the commercial birds have poor immunity against common poultry diseases. As production is inversely proportional to the viability traits, the nutrients absorbed are mostly diverted for growth in commercial chicken. On the other hand, indigenous birds reared in rural areas are resistant to many diseases and pests. Unlike the local breeds maintained in villages, the commercial breeds require high level of input pertaining to feed and health care to maintain production and check mortality.

Bacteria

Definition

Bacteria belong to prokaryota which encompasses organisms with a primitive type of nucleus lacking a clearly defined membrane. The bacteria are smaller than fungi and measure about 0.5 to 1.0 x 2.0 to 5.0µ.

Introduction
Bacteria are single-celled prokaryotic organisms that can be both beneficial and harmful to plants. While many bacteria play essential roles in soil health and plant nutrition, certain pathogenic bacteria can cause severe diseases, leading to significant agricultural losses. Understanding the characteristics, life cycles, and management strategies for bacterial plant pathogens is crucial for effective disease control.
Characteristics and Morphology of Phytopathogenic Bacteria
General Characteristics
Phytopathogenic bacteria possess unique features that distinguish them from non-pathogenic strains:
• Cell Structure: Bacterial cells lack a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Their genetic material is located in a single circular chromosome.
• Cell Wall Composition: Most phytopathogenic bacteria have a rigid cell wall composed of peptidoglycan, which provides structural support and protection. The composition of the cell wall varies, leading to classifications as Gram-positive or Gram-negative bacteria.

Definition
Bacteria belong to proakaryota which encompasses organisms with a primitive type of nucleus lacking a clearly defined membrane .The bacteria are smaller than fungi and measure about 0.5 to 1.0 x 2.0 to 5.0μ.
Structure of bacteria
1. A bacterial cell consists of a cell wall and a compound membrane enclosing protoplasm.
2. The protoplasm contains the nucleus, vacuoles, mesosomes, lipids, polysaccharides, mitochondric granules, and spores.
3. Bacterial cells may have flagella, pili, fimbrae, and capsules on the outside.
4. The bacterial cell contains a characteristics cell wall. The cell wall of bacteria is composed of a peptidoglycan. It is composed of acetyleglucosamine and cetyle-muramic acid .
5. The rigid peptidoglycan layer is located.
6. The latter layer is composed of lipoprotein . It is common in gram negative bacteria.
7. Many bacteria possess other intracellular membrane systems such as mesosomes and chondrioids.
8. The mesosome structure is formed by an invagination of the cytoplasmic membrane.
9. Mesosomes serve for compartmentalization and integration of biochemical systems.

Size – Shapes - Arrangements – Morphology

Bacteria are very small, most being approximately 0.5 to 1.0 mm diameter. Smallest bacteria are Mycoplasmas, as small as 0.2 micrometers (almost as small as largest poxviruses).

Accepted wisdom is that bacteria are smaller than eukaryotes. But certain cyanobacteria are quite large; Oscillatoria cells are 7 micrometers diameter, size of red blood cells. And certain eukaryotes (e.g. Nanochlorum eukaryotum) are very small, only 1 to 2 micrometers, but true eukaryotes (nucleus, chloroplast, mitochondrion are present). So size difference is, like many generalizations, only a useful yardstick, not an absolute truth.

Epulopiscium fishelsoni, discovered in 1985 in intestinal tract of sturgeonfish, is an enormous, cigar-shaped cell, as large as 80 x 600 micrometers (that’s 0.6 mm, large enough to be seen by the naked eye). Amazingly, this cell is prokaryotic! Initial evidence by EM was hard to believe, but confirmed rRNA comparisons with other organisms, a cousin of Gram-positive Clostridium genus.

The relative size of the bacteria are as follows :

A. Bacterial Diseases in Shrimp

Bacterial diseases in hatcheries and farms are being increasingly recognised as major hurdles to successful shrimp farming (Plate 6). Among the several bacterial diseases, diseases due to Vibrio sp. (vibriosis) are common. As majority of the Vibrio are secondary opportunistic pathogens, problems related to vibriosis can be traced to stress, poor water quality and bad management. It is widely accepted that the ubiquitous opportunistic vibrios are always responsible for causing mortalities in shrimp which are already stressed by poor water quality, external fouling and primary pathogens like viruses.

Vibrios are gram negative, oxidase positive, motile rods. Most frequently reported species in hatchery situations include Vibrio harveyi, V. vulnificus, V. parahaemolyticus and V. alginolyticus. All species of cultured shrimp are susceptible to vibriosis under stressful condition.

The common clinical signs associated with vibriosis are: 1) high mortalities, particularly in PL and young juveniles shrimp, 2) Moribund shrimp appearing hypoxic and often coming to pond surface and edges, 3) Reddening of shrimp, 4) Shell and appendage necrosis with blackening, 5) Presence of luminiscence in affected shrimp in tanks and ponds.

Separation of Bacteria and Protozoa
(Method of Czerkawski, 1975)

Rumen contents are obtained just before and two hours after feeding from sheep that had been given an experimental ration. The samples of rumen contents are strained through gauze and fractioned by sedimentation and centrifugation to give preparations of mixed protozoa (PR), large bacteria (LB) and small bacteria (SB). Whole particulate matter is also isolated by centrifugation at 20000g. The detail steps are mentioned in the flow chart given below.

Introduction

The soil around plant roots that forms the rhizosphere is a dynamic, complex zone. All plant parasitic nematodes are obligate parasities and must enter this zone to reach their host and cause damage (Kerry, 2000). Nematodes in soil are subject to infections by bacteria and fungi. This creates the possibility of using soil microorganisms to control plant-parasitic nematodes. Bacteria are numerically the most abundant organisms in soil, and some of them, for example members of the genera Pasteuria, Pseudomonas and Bacillus have shown great potential for the biological control of nematodes. Nematophagous bacteria are distributed broadly, possess diverse modes of action, and have broad host ranges. A variety of nematophagous bacterial groups have been isolated from soil, host-plant tissues, and nematodes and their eggs and cysts (Siddiqui and Mahmood, 1999; Kerry, 2000; Meyer, 2003).

They affect nematodes by a variety of modes: for example parasitizing; producing toxins, antibiotics, or enzymes; interfering with nematode–plant-host recognition; competing for nutrients; inducing systemic resistance of plants; and promoting plant health (Siddiqui and Mahmood, 1999). They form a network with complex interactions among bacteria, nematodes, plants and the environment to control populations of plant-parasitic nematodes in natural conditions (Kerry, 2000).

Bacterial culture methods are key to diagnosing and confirming bacterial infections in fish. These techniques involve the isolation and growth of bacterial pathogens from fish tissues or environmental sources under controlled lab conditions. The effectiveness of these methods depends greatly on accurate sample collection, careful handling, and the correct choice of culture media and incubation parameters.
Samples are aseptically collected from infected fish—typically targeting tissues such as the kidney, liver, spleen, gills, and any visible skin lesions. In live fish, sterile tools are used for tissue extraction, while in dead fish, internal organs should be harvested promptly after death to reduce contamination. For surface-level infections, swabs taken from mucus or skin lesions are also helpful. To maintain bacterial viability and minimize contamination, samples must be kept cool during transport.
In the laboratory, samples are inoculated onto culture media. The type of media used depends on the suspected pathogen. Common general-purpose media include Tryptic Soy Agar (TSA), Nutrient Agar (NA), and Brain Heart Infusion Agar (BHIA). For selective isolation, media such as MacConkey Agar (for Gramnegative bacteria), TCBS Agar (for Vibrio species), or Edwardsiella Isolation Medium are utilized. Enrichment broths like Alkaline Peptone Water or Buffered Peptone Water may be used to boost bacterial numbers before plating.
Incubation typically occurs at 25°C to 30°C, with most fish pathogens growing well in this range. Plates are monitored over 24 to 72 hours. Bacterial colonies are assessed for physical traits such as size, shape, color, and hemolysis patterns, particularly on blood agar.

Wild life diseases are given more priority in the recent days due to the fact that conservation of any wild fauna canít be achieved fully, unless due efforts are equally given pertaining to the assessment of health status and the disease management, in the concerned wild animal species.

Ducks are members of the order Anseriformes and belong to the family Anatidae. Ducks, swans and geese are all members of the Anatidae family; however, ducks are smaller and have a shorter neck. Ducks are tough birds that require little care or management. People all over the world enjoyed and consume duck meat and eggs. Ducks produce more eggs than hens. The size is also larger than that of a chicken. Ducks require less attention and perform well in scavenger hunts. Ducks are second only to chickens in many countries for meat and eggs. Ducks can be raised commercially or on a small scale for meat or eggs, even in backyards with other birds or animals. 

With increasing fish culture activities several bacterial diseases causing morbidity and mortality in fish have been reported in tropical and subtropical aquaculture systems. Common and major diseases are due to motile aeromonads, Vibrios and Pseudomonas. However, bacterial diseases of minor nature have also been reported from aquacultural systems. In the last two decades several new diseases due to Streptococcus sp, Edwardsiella and Ricketsia have also emerged.

Bacteria can cause disease either as primary pathogens or as secondary opportunistic invaders. Bacterial diseases in fish can be broadly classified as surface ulcerative, acute systemic and chronic granulomatous types (Table 1, Plates 4 and 5). Surface ulcerative types of diseases are characterized by hemorrhagic surface ulcers and are caused by species of Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, Vibrios, Flexibacteria and Myxobacteria. Surface ulcerative disease conditions at times develop to acute systemic disease. Acute systemic disease are characterized by the presence and proliferation of bacteria in internal organs like kidney, heart, spleen, blood and other visceral organs. These diseases produce significant necrotic changes in all affected organs and can cause mortality in a short time scale. Bacterial hemorrhagic septicemia caused by Aeromonas hydrophila is a major problem in carp farms. Chronic granulomatous type of disease conditions are characterized by the formation of granulomas or nodules with the initiating bacteria in the centre. These conditions will not produce mass mortality but can produce chronic low levels of mortality and can significantly reduce growth.

Introduction Shrimp farming is a lucrative sector in the food production industry. According to SOFIA (2020), 9.4 million tonnes of crustaceans were produced in 2020 worldwide, with 4.96 million tonnes coming from Penaeus vannamei. India is one of the largest global producer and exporter of farmed shrimp. In India, shrimp production increased significantly after introducing Pacific white leg shrimp, Penaeus vannamei, in 2009. Among the cultured shrimp species, Penaeus vannamei is the leading species under culture in India, with an estimated production of 7.12 lakh tonnes (MPEDA, 2020). Intensification of culture and diversification of species provoke the incidence of diseases making diseases the major constraint in aquaculture, leading to tremendous losses. Shrimp diseases are of viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic origin.

1 Which of the following diseases is also known as Equine Distemper?

a) Eastern Equine Encephalomyelitis

b) Western Equine Encephalomyelitis

c) Strangles

d) Glanders

Clinical Symptoms

• Gasping for air

• Discoloured gills with trapped materials

• Swollen gills with enhanced mucous secretion

• White to grey spots on the gills

• Diseased fish gather near the outlet of the pond

• Fish become lethargic and remain on the surface waters

Causative Agent: Flavobacterium branchiophilum, Cytophaga spp., Flexibacter spp.

Host (Common sp.)

• Goldfish • Koi carp

• Cichlids • Fighter fish

• Gourami fish

1. How does the toxin of Clostridium botulinum affect the nervous system?

a) Blocks inhibitory transmitter substance

b) Stimulates macrophages

c) Causes haemolysis and tissue destruction

d) Induces systemic shock and death

What is the specific effect of the toxin produced by Clostridium perfringens on host cells?

a) Blocks inhibitory transmitter substance

b) Induces systemic shock

c) Causes ribosomal dysfunction

d) Disrupts plasma membranes

Introduction

Microorganisms are a great source of genetic diversity, still far from completely known and explored. The intimate association of plants with complex microbial communities is of great importance for the growth and productivity of plants in agriculture. There exists a definite difference in microbial community present in the bulk soil and the neighboring micro environments like phyllosphere, endosphere, rhizosphere and endorhizae. Microorganisms that colonize the plants’ rhizosphere are either pathogenic or beneficial according to their effects on plants and the way they interact with roots. The rhizosphere supports a plethora of microbial populations capable of exerting beneficial, neutral or detrimental effects on plant growth and development. Microorganisms such as bacteria, actinomycetes, protozoa, algae, fungi, and viruses coexist in the rhizosphere; bacteria are the most abundant among them.

What are Genes? Genes are linear sequences of nucleotides of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Each gene consists of a specific sequence of nucleotides and is responsible for determining a particular characteristic of cell. Nucleotides consist of nitrogen –containing compounds called bases, joined to the sugar, deoxyribose and to phosphate. The nucleotide bases are the purines, adenine and guanine and the pyrimidines, thymine and cytosine.

A number of genes are joined together to form a structure called a chromosome.

DNA consists of two strands of nucleotides twisted around each other into a double helical structure. The nucleotide bases are arranged in a specific sequence in each strand. The strand has a backbone of sugar and phosphate from which the bases protrude.

The genetics is the study of inheritance and variability of organisms. Bacterial genetics is a sub-field which specifically studies transmission of genetic information from one bacterium to its progeny or between the interbreeding bacteria and the expression of genetic information.

Mutation

Hugo de Vries (1848-1935, Dutch botanist) coined the term ‘mutation’. It is originated from a Latin word which means ‘to change’. The heritable change in bacterial DNA sequences is known as bacterial mutation. The mutation will generate a new type of bacteria with altered genotypical and phenotypical characteristics, known as ‘mutant’. The parent bacterial cell from which the mutants are generated is known as ‘wild type’. In nature bacterial mutation is a rare incidence. The spontaneous mutation occurs at a rate of 1 in 10⁵ to 10⁸. The phenotypical expression of mutation occurs quickly as the bacteria are haploid with shorter generation time.

Etiology

The condition is usually caused by implantation of low virulent saprophytic bacteria due to traumatic injury. These organisms stimulate cell mediated immune response by persistence of antigen in the tissue.

10.1 Transformation of E. coli by electroporation Principle

Preparation of electro-competent bacteria is considerably easier than preparing cells for transformation by chemical methods. Bacteria are simply grown to mid –log phase, chilled, centrifuged, washed extensively with ice cold buffer containing 10% glycerol. DNA may be introduced immediately into the bacteria by exposing them to a short high voltage electrical discharge. Alternatively, the cell suspension may be snap frozen and stored at-70^oC for 6 months before electroporation, without loss of transforming efficiency.

Since E.coli cells are small, they require very high strengths (12.5- 15KV cm^-1) for electroporation as compared to those used to introduce DNA into eukaryotic cells. Electroporation is temperature dependent and is best carried out at 0-4°C.

The highest efficiency of transformation is obtained when the concentration of input DNA is high (1-10 μg/ml) and when the length and intensity of the electrical pulse are such that only 30-50% of the cells survive in the procedure. Under these conditions, as many as 80% of the surviving cells may be transformed. Higher frequencies of transformation (colonies/ molecules input DNA) are obtained when the DNA concentration is low (?10pg/ml).

The method outlined in this protocol is followed with most strains of E.coli and with plasmids <15kb in size. However, substantial variation in the efficiency of transformation between the strains of E. coli. has been reported. As in case with chemical transformation, linear plasmid DNAs introduced into E.coli by a pulsed electrical discharge transform very efficiently from 10 to 1000 fold but less efficiently than the corresponding closed circular DNA – perhaps because the exposed terminal of linear DNA are susceptible to attack by intracellular nucleases.

To Prepare the Competent Cell and Carry Out Transformation Introduction

Transformation results from the uptake of purified DNA by bacterial cells and is the most frequently used procedure for introducing recombinant DNA molecules into bacteria. It is now widely used to transfer small plasmids from one bacterial strain to another. DNA is extracted from donor cell and used to treat the recipient cells that have been rendered more susceptible to DNA uptake. These competent cells allow DNA to enter through pores or channels in the cell membrane and in the case of plasmids, permit subsequent plasmid replication.

Introduction

Bacteriological examination of milk indicates the hygienic condition of the milk i.e., quality of milk in relation to the health of consumer. Two main objectives of carrying out bacteriological examination are to evaluate the degree of cleanliness in the vicinity of production and handling of milk; and secondly to check the presence of infectious microorganism. Generally, number of bacteria present per milliliter is taken as an index in the routine examination of milk as other tests for identification and differentiation of pathogenic and non-pathogenic microorganisms are time consuming and expensive.

Direct Microscopic Count (DMC) consists of examining stained films of measured volume of milk or milk product, dried on a glass slide under a compound microscope. This method enables rapid estimation of total population of bacteria of a milk sample with relatively more accuracy as compared to other methods.

Cyanobacterial species

Cyanobacterial species viz., Anabaena variabilis, Anabaena fertilissima, Nostoc muscorum, N. punctiforme, N. linckia, N. commune, Spirulina platensis, Westiellopsis prolifica and Hapalosiphon sp. were obtained from National Center for Conservation and Utilization of Blue-green Algae, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. Cultures were maintained in BG-11 growth medium throughout the study in the laboratory.

Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as one of the gravest threats to modern medicine, undermining decades of progress in infectious disease control. It is cited by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of the top 10 threats to global health. In 2019 alone, AMR was associated with approximately 4.95 million deaths, including 1.27 million directly attributable to resistant bacterial infections. This makes AMR a leading cause of death worldwide, surpassing HIV/AIDS (0.86 million deaths) and malaria (0.64 million deaths) in the same year. Projections suggest that if the trend continues unchecked, AMR could cause 10 million deaths annually by 2050, representing a profound human-cost escalation. Livestock and Animal burden While the quantitative burden of AMR in animals is not yet globally mapped, its effects in livestock are already both profound and alarming. Over 70% of all antimicrobials globally are used in farm animalsfrequently for growth promotion and disease prevention—not just treatment. This widespread use contributes to emerging resistance in key pathogens—Salmonella, E. coli, Campylobacter in poultry, and severe swine dysentery in pigs. In some outbreaks, swine dysentery, resistant to conventional treatment, has caused up to 90% morbidity and 30% mortality in weaned pigs. Animal-to-Human Transmission and the One Health Paradigm Antimicrobial resistance in livestock doesn’t stay on the farm—it seeps into the environment and crosses over to humans via food chains, direct contact, and environmental pathways. For example, substandard veterinary medicines and antibiotic misuse has been traced in zoonotic infections and veterinary-tohuman AMR transmission.Surveillance gaps remain: the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) acknowledges that while human-related AMR mortality is well-documented, the animal health burden is not yet quantified globally—though numerous projects are underway to address this gap. The failure of conventional antibiotics to treat resistant infections highlights the urgent need for alternative therapeutic strategies. Among the most promising options is bacteriophage therapy—the use of viruses that specifically target and kill bacteria. Bacteriophages Bacteriophages, often referred to simply as phages, are viruses that infect and replicate within the bacteria. They are considered as the most abundant biological entities on Earth, with an estimated amount 10³¹ phage particles present in the biosphere—outnumbering bacteria by approximately tenfold. Phages are naturally found in diverse ecosystems including soil, ocean, sewage, and even within the microbiomes of humans and animals.

Bacteriophage is the term applied to bacterial viruses. Bacteriophage having the ability to lyse certain sensitive living cells. Phages are small particles, which can only be seen in the electron microscope after the application of suitable staining techniques. All phages have a head and most have a tail. The head may be isometric or prelate with a hexagonal outline.

There are two types of phages virulent and temperate which enter a different relationship with the host, the lytic and lysogenic cycles respectively.

Bacteroides spp are non-spore forming gram-negative bacilli that are part of the human resident flora. Microbiologically, they are distinguished from other genera by growth in 20% bile. At present, the Bacteroides fragilis group consists of ten species: B. fragilis (the most frequent isolate), B. distasonis, B. thetaiotaomicron, B. vulgatus, B. ovatus, B. eggerrthii, B. merdae, B. stercoris, B. uniformis, and B. caccae. Since 1990, many organisms previously designated as Bacteroides have been reclassified (see chapter on Anaerobes other than Bacteroides). Bacteroides, the predominant genus in the human
intestine, are important in numerous metabolic activities and may provide some level of protection from invasive pathogens. All 10 species are usually isolated from the colon, although infections caused by or associated with them can include virtually any organ.
Characteristics
The gram-negative Bacteroides spp. or closely related genera are capsulated obligatory anaerobic bacilli that are non-spore forming, pale-staining, and some are motile by peritrichous flagella, while other taxa are non-motile. Bacteroides, Parabacteroides, Odoribacter are generally bile resistant, distinguished from genera which are bile sensitive. They are normally commensal, found in the
intestinal tract of humans (mouth, colon, urogenital tract) and other animals. Many cultures of Bacteroides strains display brown to black pigmentation on blood agar media caused by esculin hydrolysis.
Morphology
In general, all strains were stained poorly with safranin, but well with dilute carbolfuchsin. Motility was not observed in any strains. The morphology of Bacteroides fragilis in fresh cultures and in pus is not
especially characteristic. In this form, the bacillus measures 0.5 by 2.0 to 2.5 micra. Older cultures tend to develop larger forms (0.6 to 0.8 by 2.0 to 9.0 micra) but even in this state the organism cannot be distinguished from aerobic Gram-negative bacilli, by its morphology.

12.1 Bactofugation
Using a specially constructed hermetic centrifuge, the Bactofugation® method separates bacteria—including especially the spores produced by particular bacterial strains—from milk. The RPM rises to 60000. Since their density is larger than that of milk, this technique has shown to be a quick approach of lowering the spore count in milk. Usually separating the milk into a portion more or less free from germs, bactofugation produces a concentrate (bactofugate), containing generally both spores and bacteria in general and amounts to up to 3% of the feed to the Bactofuge.
12.2 Dehydration
One can preserve the milk by dehydrating to different degrees. The “shelflife” of the dehydrated milk is longer than that of milk kept refrigerated and pasteurised. Concentrated or dry milk (milk powder) is milk from which some or all of the water has been removed. More than eighty-percent of milk is water. Eliminating water can help to preserve milks the best way. One can accomplish it freeze drying or by drum or spray drying.
12.2.1 Condensed Milk
Eliminating some of the water from whole or partially/fully skimmed milk, either with or without sugar, results in condensed milk. Generally speaking, “condensed milk” is “full cream sweetened condensed milk,” whereas “evaporated milk” is used for “full cream unsweetened condensed milk.” Variations in skimmed milk are labeled “sweetened condensed skim milk” and “unsweetened condensed skim milk.” For full cream products, milk solids have a concentration ratio of about 1:2.5; for sweetened condensed skim milk, that ratio is 1:3. Annexure-I has an exhaustive composition chart for condensed milk.

Bael is one of the oldest and useful trees of India. The bael fruit, (Aegle marmelos Correa) is also called Bengal quince (John and Stevenson, 1979), Indian quince, golden apple, holy fruit, stone apple, bel, belwa, sriphal and maredoo in India. Among the indigenous fruits of India, Bael occupies an important place. All the parts of bael tree have their own importance. It is a medicinally and economically important fruit crop with immense potential for extending its cultivation in semi-arid degraded land. Mention of bael cultivation in Indian literature dates back to 800 B.C.  Bael fruit is available in almost all states of India but most abundantly available in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

The Bael fruit is one of the most nutritious fruits. It contains 61.5 g water, 1.8 g protein, 0.39 g fat, 1.7 g mineral, 31.8 g carbohydrate, 55 mg carotene, 0.13 mg thiamin, 1.19 mg riboflavin, 1.1 mg niacin and 8 mg vitamin C / 100 gm of edible portion (Gopalan et al., 1971). It contains the highest riboflavin content among fruits. Marmelosin is, most probably, the therapeutically active principle of bael fruit. It is isolated as a colorless crystaline compound (Dixit and Dutt., 1932).The astringent taste of bael fruit is due to phenolic compounds. The medicinal properties of bael have been dealt with in Charaka Samhita (Aiyar, 1956). Bael fruit has curative, pesticidal and nutritive properties. The leaves of bael are used for worship of Lord Shiva. Green bael fruits are used for preparing Murabba (preserve) generally taken for stomach ailments. Bael fruits have an immense potential for processing into products like squash, jam, toffee, candy and syrups for internal and foreign market.

Bael (Aegle marmelos Correa.) also known as Shri Phal, Baelpatra, Bengal quince, Beel, Bel is a nutritious and medicinal fruit plant, which is most suitable for water scarce areas of the country. It is indigenous tree to India and known since ancient time. Bael fruit is mentioned in ancient literature viz., Vedas, Ramayana, Upavan Vinod,  Brihat Samhita (Singh and Roy, 1984). Methods of ripening of the bael fruit are also given in Buddhist and Jain literature 800 BC – 325 BC.  During the Ramayana period, it has been mentioned that bael trees were found growing in the Chitrakut hills and Panchvati. The bael is grown throughout the country and main bael growing states are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha and Rajasthan. It is found growing in neighboring countries like Nepal, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand and most of the Southeast Asian countries. Besides systematic orchard, bael can also be grown in parks, temple gardens, roadsides etc. The bael plant is sacred to the Hindus and is of common occurrence in temples of ‘Lord Shiva’ because of its mythological significance.

Bael (Aegle marmelos, L.) belongs to the family Rutaceae and is an important indigenous fruit of India known since 2000-820 BC. Bael is considered to be native to India and is grown all over the country. It is also seen in south east Asian countries like Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Indonesia and Thailand. It is a hardy plant and can be grown even on marginal soils.

The leaves are trifoliate and aromatic. The leaves of the tree are used in religious offerings. The fruit is usually globose, grey or yellowish with small hard aromatic rind. The pulp is thick mucilaginous, orange yellow in colour with sweet scented aroma. The importance of bael fruit lies in its curative properties. It is used in Ayurveda for its medicinal properties.

There are no recognized or improved varieties of bael with a standard name. It usually goes with the name of locality or region it is grown in. Ayodhya, Etawah, Faizabad Local, Gonda Selection, Kagzi Bael, Kagzi Kalan, Mirzapuri, Darogaji, Ojha, Rampuri Azamati, Khamaria, Deoria Large, Gonda-1 and NB-5 are a few to name.

Uses

Bael fruits cut in half, or the soft types broken open, and the pulp, dressed with palm sugar, eaten for breakfast, as is a common practice in Indonesia. The pulp is often processed as nectar or “squash” (diluted nectar). A popular drink (called “sherbet” in India) is made by beating the seeded pulp together with milk and sugar. A beverage is also made by combining bael fruit pulp with that of tamarind. These drinks are consumed perhaps less as food or refreshment than for their medicinal effects.

Mature but still unripe fruits are made into jam, with the addition of citric acid. The pulp is also converted into marmalade or sirup, likewise for both food and therapeutic use, the marmalade being eaten at breakfast by those convalescing from diarrhea and dysentery. A firm jelly is made from the pulp alone, or, better still, combined with guava to modify the astringent flavor. The pulp is also pickled. The young leaves and shoots are eaten as a vegetable in Thailand and used to season food in Indonesia. They are said to reduce the appetite. An infusion of the flowers is a cooling drink. (Morton, 1987).

Introduction

Bael (Aegle marmelos Corr.) is an indigenous fruit of India belongs to family Rutaceae and it is commonly known as Bengal quince (John and Stevenson, 1979), Bilva, Indian quince, Golden apple, Holy fruit, Bel, Belwa, sriphal, bilipatra Stone apple and Maredo in India. The deciduous with trifoliate aromatic leaves is traditionally used as sacred offering to the ‘Lord Shiva’ and thus the tree is also known by the name Shivaduma (The tree of Shiva). It has tolerance to arid conditions as well as high rainfall. It is known from prehistoric time and mentioned its importance in different ancient and medicinal system viz., Rigveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda, Charak Samhita and Sushrut Samhita, and Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani medicines and religious Jain and Buddhist literature (Balunas and Kinghorn, 2005, Om Prakash,1961 and Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). It can be grown successfully in water scarce and rainfed areas of the country. Besides, occurring as natural wild plant of forest, it is commonly grown in the homestead gardens, backyards, and religious places particularly in the premises of the Lord Shiva temples and in the farmers’ fields. In India, bael is being grown throughout the country except temperate region, but there is no systematic plantation of bael except Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat where few progressive farmers have initiated growing bael economically (Dhankhar et al., 2011). Its fruit is highly nutritive and rich in vitamins, bioactive compounds, minerals, carbohydrate, etc (Gopalan et al., 1964). Every part of the tree such as fruit root, bark, leaf and flower of any stage of maturity and ripening are important ingredients of several traditional formulations. Recently, advanced scientific techniques have reported that plant has various medicinal properties viz, anticancer, antibacterial, antifungal, antidiabetic, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, haemolytic, larvicidal and anti-inflammatory activities. The sherbet and marmalade prepared from fruit pulp is prescribed for diarrhea and dysentery. It is said that the ripe fruit is a tonic, an astringent and laxative, whereas unripe fruit is an astringent and digestive and good for heart and brain. The important medicinal properties of bael are antidiabetic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, analgesic, cardioprotective, antispermogenic, anticancer and radio protective (Kumar et al., 2010 and Vadivelan et al., 2011) The fruit is efficient to avoid malnutrition and health insecurity in the underprivileged. The ripen and unripe fruits can be used for preparation of various value added products such as jam, slab, squash, powder, candy, nectar, toffee, pickle, wine, sherbet, ice cream etc.

Bael is commonly known as Bengal quince, Indian quince, golden apple, holy fruit, stone apple and bel. It is more prized for its medicinal virtues than its edible quality.  The deciduous tree with trifoliate aromatic leaves is traditionally used as sacred offering to ‘Lord Shiva’. Fruit is a hard-shelled berry and very well-known for its medicinal properties due to marmelosin content. The ripe fruit is tonic, restorative, laxative and good for heart and brain. The pulp is often processed as nectar or squash. A popular drink called “Sherbet” in India is made by beating the seeded pulp together with milk and sugar. A beverage is also made by combining bael fruit pulp with that of tamarind. These drinks are consumed perhaps less as food or refreshment than for their medicinal effects. For medicinal use, the young fruits, while still tender, are commonly sliced horizontally and sun-dried and sold in local markets. The fruit, roots and leaves have antibiotic activity. The root, leaves and bark are used in treating snakebites.

Genus : Aegle 
Species : marmelos (L) Correa
Family : Rutaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 18(36)

Bael (Aegle marmelos Correa) besides being indigenous to N. India it is also one of the most useful medicinal plant of India, as it has number of curative properties. In Ayurveda the Indian medicine system use of unripe fruit is advised for acute dysentery and diarrhoea whereas ripe fruit acts as an effective laxative. Amongst the fruits native of India, bael is said to be the most nutritious fruit, is rich in protein minerals, carbohydrates, vitamin C as well as in riboflavin content. Despite these quality statistics the fruit failed to become popular (as dessert) primarily it being very seedy with thick hard shell and mucilaginous flesh but the processing qualities needs to be exploited judiciously.

Bael [Aegle marmelos (L) Correa.], a native fruit of religious importance, is well known to the Indian people for its nutritional and medicinal values. Leaves are used as sacred offering to ‘Lord Shiva’. All parts of plant viz., leaves, roots, bark, fruits, seeds etc. are used in preparation of various Ayurvedic medicines. Bael fruit is rich in protein, fat, minerals (Ca and Fe) and vitamins (riboflavin, β carotene and Vitamin C). Fruits are used to improve the digestive system and to cure stomach diseases. Fruits can be processed into various beverages and preserves (Jauhari and Singh, 1971). In spite of its Indian origin and high medicinal and nutritional values, well organized orcharding of bael is not commonly seen in the country. It is mainly found in wild and semi-wild condition throughout the India. Besides, it is also grown in the homestead gardens, backyards, religious places and farmer’s fields (Misra and Uniyal, 2013).

The bael (Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr.) is indigenous to India and it is also called as Baelpatra, Bengal quince (John and Stevenson, 1979), Indian quince, golden apple, holy fruit, bel, bilwa, bela, maredoo and other dialectal names in India. Hindus used the leaves to worship Lord Shiva (Bilwa Patra) and keep them on Shivling and they consider it is very auspicious and to get the blessings of Shiva. The fruits form a vital ingredient of holy offerings to the God and Goddess through holy pyre (haven). In history, the mention of bael tree is traced to Vedic times (C 2000 BC. to C 800 B..) within the Yajur Veda.

• No other fruit has such a high content of Riboflavin.
• The Bael is a native of the Indo-Malayan region and has been known in India since prehistoric times.
• Narandra Bael 5– Size – 1.25 kg/fruit, very thin rind 2-5 mm, TSS-38%, Slight acidity-25 mg/100g, eight years old plant- 56 kg.
• Narendra Bael 9 - TSS-40%, Ascorbic acid – 28mg/100g.
• Pant Bael 12 – Varanasi, Gorakhpur, Mirzapur, Etawa, Kagzi Sewan Large, Deoria Large, NB1, NB5 and NB9.
• Bael is very hardy subtropical, deciduous tree and can thrive well even in swampy alkaline soils having pH range 5 to 10.
• Major bael growing states: U.P., Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa.
• Seeds, which are sown in June, usually propagate bael; Seedlings are transplanted a year later.
• Patch budding is the month of June or July gives the best results.
• Bael can be classified as a climacteric fruit.
• Bacterial shot-hale canker of Bael is caused by (Xanthomonas blue).