eChapters

Chemicals have been in use to arrest the ill effects of plant diseases even in the prehistoric periods (1000 B.C.) (Ogawa et al. 1977), although the nature of the causative agent was not known at that time. A combination of chemicals was developed and demonstrated to be effective against the devasting downy mildew disease affecting grapevines by systematic investigations of Millardet (1882) in France. This mixture of copper sulphate and lime was named as Bordeaux mixture after the place where it was developed (Large 1940). Despite the development of hundreds of chemicals over the following decades, for the management of fungal diseases, Bordeaux mixture is still being used against certain diseases. Copper, sulphur - and mercury-based compounds were applied prior to the 1940s. After the end of World War II, several organic chemicals were released into the market to wage a losing war against the plant pathogens. The researchers and industry have now realized that microbial pathogens cannot be entirely suppressed or eliminated by chemicals or by any other means.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a discipline of computer science that now days affecting evary aspect of day to day life. It has the potential to greatly improve animal breeding programs in India by providing more accurate and efficient selection methods. Some of the avenues and possibilities of using AI in animal breeding in India includes Predictive analytics: AI can be used to develop optimization models that take into account a variety of factors, such as genetics, phenotypic traits, and environmental conditions, to identify the best breeding strategies. AI can be used to analyze large amounts of data on animal genetics, phenotypic traits, and environmental factors to predict the likelihood of an animal producing offspring with desired traits. This can help breeders make more informed decisions about which animals to be selected for breeding. AI algorithms can be trained to accurately identify diseases in animals by analyzing imaging data, such as X-rays and MRI scans, as well as blood and tissue samples which in turn facilitate veterinarians to make more accurate diagnoses, improving treatment outcomes. AI can also improved feed efficiency by analyzing the feed consumption and nutrient utilization data to identify patterns and trends that can be further utilized to improve feed efficiency, reduced feed costs and increased production efficiency.

The terms such as organic, natural, biological, biodynamic, altemative and sustainable farming have entered the agriculture vocabulary. Inspite of these differences in terminology, basically identical ideologies, ideas and technologies are reflected. The common objectives of all the system are to develop farming methods to restore, maintain or build-up soil productivity, to protect the environment instead of causing pollution, produce safe and healthy food, and preserve or help the small farmer.

In Japan, the farmers study the nature, learn from it and apply the knowledge on their farms. For instances growing plots should also be mulched with straw or plant residues, this imitates the conditions in natural forest where ground is never bare. Instead of using pesticides, strong herbs or plants can be grown around vegetable plots to ward off the insects. To keep the soil health natural, organic fertilizers are used. Soil microorganisms and earthworms take care of the processes involved in decomposition and mineralization of the organic substances, fix atmospheric nitrogen, solubilise insoluble forms of phosphate and produce natural growth promoting substances and antibiotics,

The concept of sustainable agriculture is gaining acceptance and momentum because of rapid degradation of natural resources, increase in the cost of production in conventional agriculture system and deterioration in the quality of rural life caused by environmental pollution. Moreover it is risky and uneconomical to practise conventional agriculture in over 70 percent of the cultivated area in India which is presently under rainfed farming. Much of the know how to practice organic farming models has rested on the individual farmers till now. They however do not have the benefit of appropriate technology and scientific information and also institutional support to ensure success of the new farming system.

Liquid milk is the cheapest form of milk whereas value added products like yoghurt and paneer, already popular in India are ways to earn a higher income with some raw materials. Farms should focus on dairy herd improvement, herd management etc. Milk and dairy products are always very helpful to farmers for a constant source of income besides their regular farm products. They do not required to expend extra for their feeding if the number of cattle are less. With slight extra care they can earn enough to meet their daily expenses. Cows, buffalo, all the milk giving animals are easy to care.

To sustain the meat industry in profitable manner, efficient utilization of meat by-products is an important issue. In today’s competitive world the realization of old saying “Only the last cry of the animal is wasted” has become essential. The utilization of by-products not only ensures additional revenue but also reduce the cost of various mandatory disposal treatments. The live animals are becoming costlier over the dressed carcass which compels the utilization of by-products. Moreover, unused by-products is also a great threat to environment and public-health apart from loosing nutritional resources. According to FAO (2004) estimates 106.75 million livestock and more than 650 million poultry birds were slaughtered annually in India leading to production of 6.3 million MT meat and different by-products of appreciable value. Now a day’s various techniques are available for the utilization of by-products for different purposes still significant portion of the by-products are unutilized and poses huge economic losses.

Animal By-products are the portions of animal body which are not included in dressed carcass. Animal by-products can be estimated by subtracting the dressing percentage from 100. Dressing percentage is inversely proportional to the byproducts means lower the dressing percentage, higher will be the yield of by-products and vice versa. In normal cases dressing percentage usually ranges between 50-70 percent and by-products yield in between 30-50 percent. However, the actual percentage may be higher because it excludes the weight of bones in muscles which is a part of dressed carcass.

ABSTRACT

Eastern Uttar Pradesh has 27 districts and lowest per capita net domestic output then other regions of the state. Rainfall is the only source of water. Acute shortage of fuel, fodder and timber makes agroforestry an important proposition for this region. The paper presents different agroforestry models developed by Allahabad Agriculture Institute for the region. Economics of the prominent agroforestry systems has been worked out. Emerging innovative agroforestry practices like aqua farming, honey bee, sericulture are discussed. Recommended species and agroforestry models for utilizing wastelands of the region are also provided.

INTRODUCTION

Eastern Uttar Pradesh covers an area of 87,840 sq. km. ranging from 24° - 28°20’ N latitude and 81° - 85° E longitude (map of Eastern U.P.) with population of 632 lakhs (Census, 2001). It has 27 districts and the lowest per capital net domestic output than other regions of U.P. It has 6 districts which are under developed and 15 districts are industrially backward. The contour of 100m roughly marks the western limit of Eastern Uttar Pradesh. It is mostly filled with deep alluvial deposits by the Ganga and tributaries. The Microregional variations are highlighted by the Bangar (the old alluvium) and the Khedar (new alluvium) formations. It enjoys tropical humid climate (rainfall varying from 120 cm to 140 cm). This region is plaughed with recurring floods and droughts. In 1983 Eastern Uttar Pradesh suffered a loss of the order of Rs. 319.12 crores because of the floods; in the same region, drought due to long dry spells left 3.820 lakhs ha. of sown area to wither. The menancing of Ganga – Ghaghara, Doab and recurring drought of trans Yamuna tract of Allahabad district, parts of Mirzapur and Varansi districts and big chunks of usar and unculturable wasteland (2.93 lakh ha) sap agricultural potential of these areas. Hardly 9.54 percent of total geographical area is under forests. Their paucity accenulates the problems of floods and soil erosion. Most Ganga plain is devoid of mineral wealth excepting kankar in Bhanagar tracts, but southern uplands are rich in minerals like limestone, dolomite, silica, sands, marble, building stone, magnesite and coal; organic matter is rich but nitrogen is deficient. Despite of vast water resources percentage of irrigated to gross cropped area is only 40.36 per cent that led cropping intensity only 145.20 and net irrigated to net sown area is 54.22 per cent. It has depressed economy where unemployment and underemployment is rampant, thus out migration is a typical phenomena.

INTRODUCTION

Potato is an important horticultural food crop which has the potential to meet food demand of the fast growing human population across the world, including India. This is going to be the future food crop for the millions especially in the third world countries. However, this crop is highly prone to wide range of diseases and pests that are considered to be the main bottle neck in potato production across the globe. Amongst the biotic stresses, late blight caused by oomycete Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary has historically been an important disease of potatoes and tomatoes worldwide. In the mid 1800, late blight caused widespread crop failures throughout Northern Europe including Ireland where it was responsible for the Irish famine. Since then, it has spread far and wide and now occurs wherever potatoes are grown. Losses due to P. infestans have been estimated to € 12 billion per annum of which the losses in developing countries have been estimated around € 10 billion per annum (Haverkort et al., 2009). In India, average annual losses to the tune of 15% have been estimated which amounts to 7.95 million tons of potatoes (Current production is 53 MT). Disease appears every year in epiphytotic form in hilly regions whereas in the plains, although it usually appears every year but its intensity is low (traces to 25%). It is only in few years that it assumes epiphytotic form leading to crop losses to the tune of 40%. Recently, late blight has become a serious problem in kharif grown potatoes and tomatoes in Karnataka state (Sharma et al., 2015). Phytophthora infestans is considered as re-emerging pathogen due to regular emergence of its novel strains with increased virulence and its appearance in new locations with surprising intensity. Management of this devastating pathogen is challenged by its remarkable speed of adaptation to control strategies such as genetically resistant cultivars.

“The light of unconditional love awakens the dormant seed potential of the soul helping them ripen, blossom and bear fruit, allowing us to bring the unique gifts that are ours to offer in this life”

–John Wehwood

Introduction

In nature and in humans, seeds are vehicles for spreading new life from place to place. In plants, it refers to the unit of dispersal that survives between seed maturation and its establishment as a seedling. A seed, like a fortress, protects and sustains life as they are well-stocked with special food supplies to endure long sieges. There are many things that seeds are, but above all else, they are the means of survival of their species. It is a way of suspending embryonic development and then resuming it years later after the parents have passed away.

7.1 Water Quality and Waste Management

Introduction

Water quality and waste management are critical components of environmental management and conservation efforts, particularly in the context of aquatic ecosystems and freshwater resources. Effective management of water quality ensures the health and productivity of aquatic habitats, supports biodiversity, and sustains ecosystem services essential for human well-being. Similarly, proper waste management practices mitigate pollution, reduce environmental impact, and promote sustainable use of natural resources. This article explores key concepts, challenges, strategies, and innovations related to water quality management and waste management in environmental conservation.

Water Quality Management

Water quality management involves monitoring, assessing, and regulating the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of water bodies to maintain or improve their suitability for aquatic life, human use, and ecosystem health.

Introduction
Psychotherapeutic measures provide a treatment approach to help a person identify and alter disturbing emotions, thought and behaviors.
They include targeted strategies that are used to deal and alleviate mental disturbances. Contemporary approaches are customized techniques to effectively and efficiently delivering solutions to the problems and their manifestations. The history of treatment throws light upon several conventional approaches to deal with multiple disorders. The following discussion provides the insight into the understanding of these approaches: -
1. Psychodynamic Therapy (PDT)
Psychodynamic therapy was the norm in psychiatric practice in the early 20th century. It evolved primarily from Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic ideas, with significant contributions from Karl Jung, Anna Freud and Melanie Klein, among others. The main emphasis is on how early experiences shape and build the psychological systems that are mostly responsible for the unconscious. Finding, exposing and resolving suppressed tensions from previous interactions that inadvertently surface in current interpersonal interactions and give rise to maladaptive behavioral patterns is the aim of psychodynamic therapy. Free association and dream analysis are two methods used to investigate the unconscious drive. The patient is urged to express himself freely and without restraint during free interaction. Using “active listening,” the therapist searches for references or patterns that connect to ongoing developmental and interpersonal issues. This can aid in understanding the unconscious process. The application of dream

Systematic management of plant diseases dates back to 1885 with the invent of Bordeaux mixture by Milardet. Thereafter, a number of contact and systemic fungicides have been reported over the years for the management of various plant pathogens, of which many have become obsolete and many are still being used with excellence. However, the ecological hazards caused by the chemical fungicides have prompted scientists to search for other avenues of crop protection. Most of the conventional chemical and biological plant protection procedures, as well as the use of disease-resistant cultivars, tend towards the direct control of pests and diseases by their elimination. But these practices generally and particularly in case of monoculture crops like rice, raise problems. The risk of developing pesticide resistance in plant pathogens is enhanced by the long term use of the same chemical. The resistance genes of the plants can also be overcome by changes in the pathogens. Therefore the situation demands development of new strategies for plant protection which can supplement the use of resistance breeding and chemical control.

ABSTRACT

Chhattisgarh is a tribal dominating state and is one of the backward and poor area of India in terms of poverty and productivity. The trees have been the part of agriculture in this region since long. The present paper highlights some of the practices which are being adopted by the farmers from time immoral and efforts had been made to fit them in the present day scientific classification system of agroforestry system with their spatial and temporal sequences. Despite of the fact that trees are integral part of farmlands still adoption of agroforestry as a sustainable land use has some constrains which have been discussed and way out suggested. Areas needed in developing agroforestry in the state have also been discussed at the end of the chapter.

All over the world, garden designing has a historical back ground. Every continent has a definite style based on cultural heritage, agro-climate and the rulers. There are influences of one style over the other and subsequent change in gardening style also. However, there are some recognized orthodox styles like ‘English Garden’, ‘French Garden’, ‘Japanese Garden’, ‘Italian Garden’, ‘Dutch Garden’, ‘Mughal Garden’ etc. These are unique and true to their specific characters. Modern gardens all over the world have been greatly influenced by all these styles.

History and characteristics of these gardens are given below in order to make one acquainted with these styles.

Dutch Garden

Initially, gardening in The Netherlands was started in the form of abbey and monastery gardens (middle ages 500-1500 A.D.). Design of the medieval gardens usually was elongated rectangle, sometimes square, also divided with cross paths. These gardens were mainly meant for production of vegetables, medicinal herbs and fruits besides flowers.

During the Dutch renaissance (1500-1650 A.D.) further gardening activities initiated. After independence in 1609, it gained momentum and the change of garden style also noticed. Gardens became more open without walls. However, the basic design was on the basis of geometrical patterns - rectangular divided into small separate square. Axis of the garden was not in relation to the building. Leafy walk path (berceaux) was main structural elements created between various sub-divisions. Bulbous plants specially tulip was most preferred in the garden besides marigold, carnation, poppy, rose etc.

Abstract

Chitin has been ranked at second position after cellulose as the most abundant natural biopolymer. Chitin has similar chemical structure to that of cellulose with 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-b-d-glucose (NAG) monomers attached via ß (1–>4) linkages. Chitosan is the deacetylated (to varying degrees) form of chitin, which, unlike chitin, is soluble in acidic solutions. Therefore, Chitosan, a copolymer of glucosamine and N-acetyl glucosamine, is amongst the most copious biopolymers on earth and finds wide range of biomedical and industrial applications. It has been approved in 1983 by USDA as a feed additive. Chitin basically is obtained from prawn/crab shells and chemical treatment of chitin produces chitosan. Since supplies of seafood waste are seasonable and variable, so fungi can be used as alternative source for chitosan. The unique physicochemical properties of chitosan provide great potential of its utilization in food industry especially dairy industry such as production of dairy products, dairy waste water treatment, extension of shelf life of dairy products etc. In recent years, exotic synthetic compounds are losing their appeal, thus application of chitinous products in dairy as well as processing aids has received considerable attention. The modified chitosan with greater functional properties has increased application in different dairy foods. This chapter focuses on the fundamental uses of chitosan and their derivatives in a variety of dairy industry applications.

Indicator

A substance which indicates the end point on completion of the reaction.

Helps in the visual determination of the completion of titration.

Seed quality is the possession of seed that is genetically pure and physically homogeneous, coupled with health and wellness.

A seed is the first genetic material that becomes the basis for future agriculture and seeds are the basic building blocks of agriculture. A great deal of farming has been modernized by technology, but without a regular and steady supply of high quality seed, yields would be drastically reduced and crop quality would decrease as well. The production of horticultural and agronomic crops depends largely on quality seed. For farmers, seed characteristics such as genetic purity, germination percentage, vigor, and appearance have a significant effect on yield. Every professional seed producer strives to achieve and maintain high seed quality.

8.1 Disease Prevention and Control in Aquaculture

Aquaculture, the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, shellfish, and plants, faces significant challenges related to disease management. Diseases in aquaculture can result from viral, bacterial, fungal, or parasitic pathogens, and their outbreaks can lead to substantial economic losses and environmental impacts. Effective disease prevention and control strategies are crucial to sustainably manage aquaculture operations and ensure the health and welfare of cultured species.

Key Strategies for Disease Prevention and Control

1. Biosecurity Measures

Biosecurity is foundational in preventing the introduction and spread of diseases within aquaculture facilities. It involves a set of management practices aimed at minimizing the risk of pathogen transmission through various pathways:

• Quarantine Protocols: New stocks should undergo quarantine periods before introduction to production systems. This allows for health screening and observation to detect and isolate potentially diseased individuals.

Introduction

Raising milk and meat production are long-standing global issues. Researchers are learning that present breeding efforts won't be sufficient to meet anticipated future food demands given the current climate scenario. The animals that influence the overall yield of the field must be screened as soon as possible. In order to build more successful modern breeding programmes, high-throughput phenotyping is currently being included into conventional breeding operations. Despite the public accessibility of their genetic information online, there is still a lack of phenotypic data on the genomes of various animal breeds because environmental factors make it more difficult to define phenotypes and increase the likelihood of measurement error (Rahaman et al., 2015). Genomic selection (GS) is a strategy that predicts the genomic estimated breeding values of lines in a breeding population using information from genome-wide markers (Meuwissen et al., 2001). When compared to other conventional methods like marker-assisted selection (MAS), genomic selection has some inherent advantages. These include boosting genetic gain by reducing breeding cycles and acquiring minor effect loci based on markers dispersed throughout the entire target genome. Reliable phenotypes and genotyping are both necessary for the training of accurate prediction models for genomic selection. Phenotyping is regarded as a significant factor restricting genetic improvements in animal breeding due to high labour and time expenditures. Traditional approaches of phenotyping are prohibitively expensive, time-consuming, and slow.

The typical way of living that reflects one’s attitude and values is called lifestyle of the person. A person’s lifestyle is shaped by one's specific geographic, economic, political, cultural and religious context. A lifestyle is a means of forging a sense of self and to create cultural symbols that resonate with the personal identity. According to WHO lifestyle is “a specific type of behaviour that can reduce disease and early death by personal physical, mental and social interaction”.
Lifestyle refers to the interests, opinions, behaviors and orientations of an individual, group or culture. The term was introduced by Austrian psychologist Alfred Adler in his 1929 book, The Case of Miss R., where he described it as “a person’s basic character established early in childhood.” Since 1961, the broader sense of lifestyle as a “way or style of living” has been recognized. Lifestyle is influenced by both tangible and intangible factors. Tangible factors include demographic variables, such as an individual’s demographic profile, while intangible factors involve psychological aspects like personal values, preferences and outlooks.
Lifestyles vary significantly between rural and urban environments. Even within urban areas, the nature of the neighborhood affects the lifestyles available to residents, influenced by factors like affluence and proximity to natural and cultural environments. For instance, coastal areas often have a surf culture or lifestyle. A lifestyle typically reflects an individual’s attitudes, way of life, values or worldview. It serves as a means of forging a sense of self and creating cultural symbols that resonate with personal identity. However, not all aspects of a lifestyle are voluntary. Social and technical systems can limit the lifestyle choices available to individuals and the symbols they can project to others and themselves.

Abstract

Deduction of overindulgence fluoride (F)  from the water has been endeavor by numerous investigators by using different materials both natural and artificial. The objective of this paper was to attempt the fluoride removal by using the locally available natural materials such as red soil, untreated charcoal, local powdered brick, fly-ash from Neyveli (thermal power plant) and mineral serpentine were used, adopting column method. Maximum defluoridation occurs immediately after the experiment has started. The morality of fluoride removed per gram is more in red soil when compared to the other materials. Variation of fluoride removal with time was studied after the erection of the column /unit, the defluoridation setup was then connected to the public water supply from the overhead tank of 50,000L capacity. Higher F removal was noted when flow rate was lesser. An attempt on the regeneration of the fluoride adsorbed soil was also made.