eChapters

Tikka or Leaf Spot
Cercospora arachidicola/ Phaeoisariopsis personatum
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Disease is caused by two different pathogens, namely, Cercospora arachidicola and Phaeoisariopsis personatum.
• The two pathogens mostly occur on the same leaves.
• The Cercospora arachidicola appears about a month earlier than the Phaeoisariopsis personatum.
• The two pathogens cause symptoms differing each other. Early leaf spot
• Sub-circular dark brown spots having 1 to over 10 mm diameter are produced on the upper leaflet surface.
• Spots are of lighter shade of brown on the lower side of the leaflets.
• Yellow halo is seen around the brown spots.
• Dark brown in colour on the upper leaflet surface where most sporulation occurs and a lighter shade of brown on the lower leaflet surface.

1. Blast
Pyricularia grisea
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Crop is susceptible to the disease during all stages of its growth, from seedling to grain formation stage.
• In young seedlings, lesions are generally of spindle shaped, however lesions of different sizes may also be observed.
• In the beginning the spots have yellowish margin and grayish centre. Later, the centres become whitish grey and disintegrate.
• Lesions are isolated in the beginning and afterwards they may soon coalesce. The distal portion of the leaves beyond the lesions may hang and drop off.
• In older plants, the disease appears on leaf blades with typical spindle shaped spots.
• Under congenial conditions, such spots enlarge, coalesce and form bigger lesions.
• Lesions are like those on the seedlings and are about 0.3-0.5 cm in breadth and 1-2 cm in length. Apices of the infected leaves beyond the lesions hang down and sometimes break.
• Stem infection causes blackening of the nodal region, penetrating into the tissues.

1. Downy Mildew (Green Ear)
Sclerospora graminicola
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Characteristic symptoms of the disease are pale, chlorotic, broad streaks extending from base to tip of leaves.
• At the advancement of disease, the leaf streaks turn brown and the leaves become shredded longitudinally.
• In severe infection, the downy fungal growth can be seen on the upper as well as lower surface of the leaves.
• Infected plants fail to form ear but if formed, they are malformed to green leafy structures.
• Complete ear can be transformed into leafy structure.
• Pathogen transformed all floral parts such as glumes, palea, stamens and pistils into green linear leafy structures of variable lengths and no grains are produced.
• Partial infection of ear head is observed in which some grains are produced and rest of the ear head is converted in to a green ear(Fig-1).

Loose Smut
Sphacelotheca cruenta
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Affected plants can be detected before the ears come out.
• Shorter than the healthy plants with thinner stalks and marked tillering.
• Ears come out much earlier than the healthy.
• Glumes are hypertrophied and the ear head gives a loose appearance than healthy.
• Sorus is covered by a thin membrane which ruptures very early, exposing the spores even as the head emerges from the sheath(Fig-1).
Etiology
Scientific Classification
Kingdom : Fungi
Division : Eumycota

Banded Leaf and Sheath Blight
Diagnostic Symptoms
• From the crop’s seedling stage until crop maturity, this pathogen can infect the plant at any point in its growth.
• The disease initially appears on the first and second leaf sheaths above the ground, and it eventually spreads to the ears, where it results in ear rot.
• The hallmark symptoms of ear rot include the presence of light brown, cottony mycelium on the plant’s ear, small, rounded black sclerotia, early ear drying, and caking of the ear sheath.
• When there is humidity, the infection that first appears on the lower sheath extends to the upper sheaths, causing leaf sheath rot and complete leaf drying.
• When the condition worsens, the majority of the plant’s leaves become blighted, and easily detachable sclerotia form on the lesions.
• The disease manifests as a straw-colored, wet, irregular to roundish patch on both leaf surfaces on the basal sheath.

Rust
The rust of wheat has been studied more than any other disease in the world. K.C. Mehta and colleagues conducted exceptional research on the disease in India. There are three recognized wheat rusts. These include Puccinia graminis tritici, which causes black stem rust; Puccinia recondita, which causes brown rust (leaf rust); and P. striiformis, which causes yellow rust. Considering their later seasonal arrival, brown and yellow rusts inflict more damages than black rust.
1. Black or Stem Rust
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Symptoms are produced on almost all aerial parts of the wheat plant but are most common on stem, leaf sheaths.
• Brown pustules of uredina appear on lower surface of the leaves, leaf sheaths and the stems, and on the spikes. which give them a rusty appearance.
• Uredina form urediniospores , which are the repeating spores.
• Uredina gradually start producing teliospores and finally transform into telia.

1. Blast
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Pathogen attacks the crop at all stages of crop growth.
• Symptoms appear on leaves, nodes, rachis, and glumes. On the leaves, the lesions appear as small bluish green flecks, which enlarge under moist weather to form the characteristic spindle shaped spots with grey centre and dark brown margin (Leaf blast).
• Spots coalesce as the disease progresses and large areas of the leaves dry up and wither. Severely infected nursery and field appear as burnt.• Black lesions appear on nodes girdling them. The affected nodes may break up and all the plant parts above the infected nodes may die (nodal blast).
• During flower emergence, the fungus attacks the peduncle and the lesion turns to brownish-black which is referred to as rotten neck / neck rot / panicle blast (neck blast).
• In early neck infection, grain filling does not occur while in late infection, partial grainfilling occurs (Fig.1).

Abstract
India’s grape industry has emerged as a key contributor to horticultural exports, driven by increasing production, evolving market strategies, and trade liberalization. This chapter analyses the trends, growth, instability, and export potential of both fresh (HS 080610) and dried grapes (HS 080620) from India between 2004 and 2023. While, India ranks among the top global producers, the fresh grape segment has seen consistent growth in exports, supported by initiatives like APEDA’s GrapeNet traceability system and private-sector innovation through companies like Sahyadri Farms and Mahindra Agri. In contrast, the dried grape segment, despite high growth potential, has faced volatility and continues to show a trade deficit. Using compound growth rates (CGR) and the Cuddy-Della Valle Index (CDVI), the study evaluates performance across production, trade value, and instability metrics. Exports potential maps highlight untapped markets such as the United States, EU, and Southeast Asia. Strengthening post-harvest infrastructure, ensuring compliance with international quality standard, and investing in value addition remain critical for India to enhance its global competitiveness in grape exports.
Keyword: Fresh grapes, Dried grapes, Export Potential, GrapeNet, Growth and instability

Abstract
The agricultural sector in India is predominantly characterized by small and marginal landholders who face numerous challenges, including limited access to markets, resources, and technology. Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) have emerged as a collective model to address these challenges, enabling farmers to achieve economies of scale and enhance market linkages. This study explores the strategic imperatives for empowering FPO's to access international markets, focusing on their ability to improve business capacities, adopt global standards, and invest in infrastructure. Key strategies include nurturing FPOs through competency development, resource pooling, and collaborations with institutions and private players. The paper highlights the importance of integrating FPOs into global value chains, enhancing their market adaptability, and fostering long-term sustainability through community-driven investments. The findings underscore that tailored support and strategic interventions can transform FPOs into viable entities capable of driving economic growth and improving the well-being of small-scale farmers.
Keywords: Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs), Agricultural Value Chains, International Market Access, Resource Pooling and Market Adaptability

Abstract
Non-tariff barrier (NTBs), particularly Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) measures and Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), have increasingly shaped the contours of international trade. While originally instituted to safeguard human, animal, and plant health and ensure product standards, these regulatory mechanisms are often criticized for functioning as covert instruments of protectionism. This chapter undertakes a comprehensive analysis of the dual nature of SPS and TBT measures, acknowledging their public policy rationale while critically examining their role in distorting trade flows, increasing compliance burdens, and eroding competitiveness, especially for exporters in developing economies. It highlights the economic ramifications, operational challenges, and policy complexities inherent in their implementation. Drawing from global best practices and multilateral frameworks, the study advocates for targeted strategies such as regulatory harmonization, improved transparency, enhanced capacity-building and robust dispute resolution mechanisms. These approaches are essential not only to prevent the misuse of SPS and TBT provisions but also to facilitate equitable market access and support rules based international trading system. The chapter emphasizes that achieving this balance is critical for fostering inclusive economic growth, promoting global competitiveness, and strengthening cooperation among nations in an increasingly interconnected world.
Keywords: Non-Tariff Barriers (NTBs), Sanitary and Photosanitary Measures (SPS), Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), Regulatory Harmonization and Disguised Protectionism

Abstract
Government initiatives to boost agricultural exports are critical for driving economic growth, promoting rural development and enhancing food security. This paper provides an overview of the importance of such initiatives from various perspectives including economic growth, rural development, trade balance, food security, foreign investment, global competitiveness and environmental sustainability. It examines the strategic steps involved in government efforts, including policy formulation, market research, product development, infrastructure development, trade facilitation, export promotion, financial support, policy advocacy and monitoring and evaluation. Furthermore, the paper highlights common government initiatives implemented worldwide to enhance agricultural exports, such as trade agreements and negotiations, export promotion programs, market diversification efforts, quality and safety standards compliance, infrastructure development, financial support mechanisms, research and development investments, branding and certification promotion, sustainability and environmental stewardship and capacity building and training. Additionally, the advantages of government initiatives in boosting agricultural exports are discussed, including expanded market access, increased competitiveness, market diversification, better quality and safety standards, infrastructure development and financial support. However, the paper also acknowledges several limitations of these initiatives, including policy inconsistency, bureaucratic red tape, lack of coordination, limited access to finance, infrastructure deficiencies, market access barriers, environmental and social concerns and dependency on external factors.
Keywords: Government Initiatives, Economic Growth, Rural Development, Trade Agreements, Export Promotion and Market Diversification

ABSTRACT
India’s agricultural exports play a pivotal role in driving economic growth, enhancing rural livelihoods, and generating employment. The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development (APEDA), establishedunder the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, has significantly contributed to the augmentation of India’s agri-exports through strategic interventions. This chapter explores APEDA’s multifaceted initiatives, including quality control, infrastructure development, product diversification, and digital innovations such as paperless systesm, mobile apps, and virtual trade fairs. Notable efforts include the promotion of Geographical Indication (GI) products, expansion of Agri-Export Zones (AEZs), and international marketing of millets during the International Year of Millets (IYOM 2023). APEDA’s Market Access Initiative (MAI) and Agri- Exchange portal have facilitated global trade linkages, while collaborations with institutions and FPOs have strengthened grassroots connections. Recent achievements include surpassing USD 19.69 billion in agri-export value in 2022- 23 and expanding to over 200 countries. This comprehensive engagement reflects APEDA’s central role in branding Indian agriculture on the global stage and positioning India as a reliable exporter of high-quality food products.
Keywords: APEDA, Geographical Indications (GI), Market Access Initiative (MAI), Virtual Trade Fair and International Year of Millets (IYOM)

Abstract
India’s agriculture sector plays a critical role in economic development, offering employment to a significant rural population and contributing notably to GDP. Despite limited natural resources, India is among the world’s top producers of various crops and livestock. However, post-harvest losses, infrastructure gaps, and limited value addition hamper its full export potential. In recent years, agricultural exports have surge, with rice, spices, sugar, buffalo meat, and marine products emerging as key contributor. India has also expanded its export footprints across major global markets, including the USA, China, Bangladesh, and the UAE. Recognizing the strategic importance of agri-exports for economic growth, employment generation, and rural development, the government has launched initiatives such as the Agriculture Export Policy (AEP), Agri Export Zones (AEZs), and Market Access Initiatives (MAI). These measures aim to boost market access, infrastructure, and competitiveness. The integration of e-NAM, focus on quality standards, branding through Geographical Indications (GI), and establishment of Agri-Cells in key countries further support India’s goal of becoming a global agriexport powerhouse. This work underscores the importance of a coherent export strategy to enhance farmer income, promote sustainable practices, and position India as a key player in the global agricultural value chain.
Keywords: Agri-Export Policy (AEP), Agricultural Export Trends, Market Access and Diversification, Value addition and Processing

Abstract
India holds a dominant position in the global production and export of castor, accounting for nearly 88% of global and leading the international the international castor oil trade. This chapter investigates the status of castor production and trade dynamics, highlighting India’s evolving role in commercial agriculture and export-oriented strategies. Castor, a non-edible oilseed with significant industrial applications, is primarily cultivated in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Andhra Pradesh. The study explores trends in area, production and yield across states and districts, alongside export trends over a 15 year period (2006-06 to 2019- 20). Results show positive growth in export quantity, value and unit price, despite fluctuations, supported by favourable policies and quality improvements. Using the Markov chain model, the direction of trade analysis reveals China as the most stable and dominant importer, followed by Netherlands and France. The USA also shows emerging potential. Instability indices indicate relatively low volatility in trade metrics. The finding suggest that while India maintains a strong global presence, strategic efforts are needed to sustain existing markets and explore new opportunities, especially in emerging economies offering better prices and reliability.
Keywords: Castor Oil Exports, High-Value Commercial Crops, Direction of Trade, Global and Castor Trade Dynamics

Abstract
India, recognized as leading producer of fruits, holds a significant position in global grape cultivation. This chapter comprehensively examines the export performance of fresh grapes from India, focusing on growth patterns, market diversification, competitiveness, and trade direction. During 2019-20, India exported over 193 thousand metric tons of grapes worth Rs. 2,176.88 crores, with the Netherlands, Russia, and the UK being key markets. Using compound annual growth rate (CAGR) analysis, the study finds significant positive trends in grape exports across major destinations. Instability indices reveal moderate fluctuations, with Bangladesh and Hong Kong showing the highest volatility, whereas the UAE demonstrated market stability. The decreasing trend in the Hirschman index indicates growing diversification in India’s grape exports. Comparative advantage analysis (RSCA) suggests India gained competitiveness post-2015. Nominal Protection Coefficient (NPC) values below unity further underscore India’s export price advantage. Mark Chain analysis reveals stable future prospects, with Netherlands projected to remain India’s top grape importer through 2022-23. The findings provide strategic insights for exporters and policymakers to strengthen India’s position in global grape markets by aligning trade efforts with loyal importers and emerging high-value destinations.
Keywords: Fresh Grapes Exports, Instability Index, Geographical Concentration Index, Export Competitiveness and Markov Chain Analysis

Abstract
This chapter explores the current landscape and future potential of agricultural exports from Bihar, a state with significant agrarian strengths yet modest global trade participation. Despite contributing robustly to India’s production of fruits, vegetables, rice, and livestock, Bihar’s share in national exports remains below 1%. The chapter presents a comprehensive analysis of Bihar’s agricultural export trends, identifying key commodities such as Shahi Litchi, Katarni Rice, Jardalu mangoes, and millets and highlights emerging opportunities through Geographical Indication (GI) tags and high-value crops. A SWOT analysis underscores Bihar’s strategic advantages, such as fertile soil and agro-climatic diversity, alongside weaknesses like infrastructure deficits, low market integration and poor access to export logistics. The chapter further outlines key threats such as flood prone regions, poor irrigation infrastructure, and limited cold storage capacity, while also examining growth potential through investment in multimodal transport, agriprocessing zones, and farmer training. Policy suggestions include the development of export policies financial incentives and SEZs to boost Bihar’s export readiness. Overall, the chapter emphasizes the importance of targeted strategies to transform Bihar into a competitive agri-export hub benefiting smallholder farmers and enhancing rural livelihoods.
Keywords: Bihar Economy, Geographical Indications, Export Infrastructure, Agri-Export Policy and SWOT Analysis

Abstract
This chapter presents a comprehensive exploration of global agricultural exports, focusing on their pivotal role in economic development, food security, and sustainability. It highlights the growing importance of emerging markets, technological advancements, and evolving consumer preferences such as the rising demand for organic, sustainable and value-added products. An in-depth analysis reveals that agricultural exports contribute significantly to job creation, income generation, and international trade relations, particularly for developing nations. The chapter evaluates India’s performance as both an exporter and importer, emphasizing key products like marine goods, rice, spices, and buffalo meat. It further discusses India’s engagement with international trade agreements, quality and safety standards, and the challenges and opportunities in maintaining compliance. The future Outlook identifies high-potential sectors including functional, organic, and plant based foods especially in Asia-Pacific, Africa and Latin America. Drawing on data-driven insights, the chapter offers strategic directions for policy makers, agribusiness, and exporters to enhance market access and competitiveness. Overall, it underscores the transformative potential of agricultural trade in shaping a resilient and inclusive global economy.
Keywords: Global Trade Dynamics, Emerging Markets, Export Opportunities and Trade Agreements

Supply chain logistics involves overseeing the flow of goods and services across the entire supply chain, from start to finish. It encompasses the sourcing, transportation, storage, and distribution of raw materials, manufacturing processes, and final products.
The scope of logistics covers the planning and execution of storing and moving goods between different points in the supply chain. It involves coordinating facilities, personnel, equipment, and other resources to ensure that products are transported as planned and have sufficient space at each point in the supply chain.
Key processes such as demand planning, transportation (including fleet management), inventory control, material handling, and order fulfillment all fall Munder the logistics umbrella. Supply chain logistics is the backbone of global trade, encompassing a wide-reaching network that includes transportation, warehousing, and inventory management systems. This vital aspect of business operations guarantees the efficient movement of products and services from manufacturers to end consumers, passing through various intermediaries along the way.
In today’s fast-paced and constantly changing business environment, understanding and optimizing supply chain logistics has become even more critical. Companies are under greater pressure to deliver products faster, more affordably, and with increased transparency.

Supply chain management (SCM) is essential for the food industry because it involves the coordination and management of various activities from food procurement to consumption. The food supply chain is complex and involves many stages, from the production of raw materials to packaging, distribution and sales. Therefore, effective food supply chain management is essential to ensure that food products are delivered to consumers efficiently, cost-effectively and with maximum food safety.
One of the biggest challenges in food chain management is food safety. Foodborne illness is a major concern and food manufacturers must implement strict quality control measures at every stage of the food supply chain. This includes testing and monitoring for pathogens, maintaining proper storage and transportation conditions, and ensuring that all equipment is cleaned and  disinfected to prevent contamination.
Another challenge is food waste. Food products have a limited shelf life and Managing inventory levels is essential to minimize waste and spoilage. Effective food supply chain management requires careful planning and coordination between suppliers, manufacturers, distributors, and retailers to ensure that products are delivered to consumers before their expiration date.
Efficient management of logistics and transportation is another essential aspect of supply chain management. Food products often travel long distances before reaching consumers, and companies need to ensure that products are delivered to customers quickly and efficiently. This requires careful planning and coordination of transportation routes, scheduling, and delivery times to minimize delays and disruptions.

Cooling systems play a vital role in cold chain logistics, serving as essential components that regulate temperature for storage, processing, and transportation. An efficient cooling system ensures that food and other perishable products remain fresh for extended periods, even before they begin their journey. Various cold chain products require specific temperature settings to maintain their quality and integrity until they reach their final destination.
For instance, tropical fruits such as bananas and pineapples must be stored at a consistent temperature between 12°C and 14°C. If the temperature exceeds this range, the fruits may ripen prematurely, compromising their quality. Likewise, food items like milk, vegetables, and other perishable fruits should be cooled within the range of 2°C to 4°C. This temperature effectively eliminates harmful pathogens and prevents bacterial growth, preserving the freshness of the produce.
For businesses dealing with frozen food, seafood, or ice cream, a more advanced cooling system is necessary—one that can maintain temperatures as low as -30°C. Such systems are essential to prevent thawing and spoilage, ensuring that frozen goods remain in optimal condition throughout their transportation and storage.

Cold chain logistics refers to the technology and processes that ensure the safe transportation of temperature-sensitive goods throughout the supply chain. It is deeply rooted in scientific principles, assessing the relationship between temperature and perishability to maintain product integrity.
Any item categorized as “perishable” typically requires cold chain management. This includes food products such as meat, seafood, and fresh produce, as well as medical supplies and pharmaceuticals.
Although, modern transportation is a relatively recent development, the  practice of moving temperature-sensitive products dates back to the late 1700s when the British used ice to preserve fish. By the late 1800s, ice was widely used to transport perishables. Dairy products were shipped from rural areas to urban markets. Cold chain technology has long been a crucial component of global trade and will continue to play a vital role in the future.
COLD CHAIN LOGISTICS
A cold chain is a specialized supply chain designed for handling perishable and temperature-sensitive goods, commonly referred to as cool cargo. These include fresh produce, meat, dairy, seafood, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, flowers, wine, and other delicate products. To preserve the quality and integrity of these perishable items, specific lowtemperature conditions must be maintained throughout the supply chain. Certain products require refrigeration; others must be kept frozen, while some demand extreme conditions—often referred to as an ultralow chain or deep freeze. Any failure to maintain the appropriate temperature can result in product spoilage, compromising safety and quality, and ultimately leading to significant financial losses.

Environmental factors play a crucial role in determining the quality and shelf-life of fruit during storage. Storage facilities are designed to hold fruit after harvest and before it reaches retail locations, while ripening rooms, often part of these facilities, focus on ripening unripe fruit. Although their processes differ, both storage and ripening facilities aim to control environmental conditions that influence fruit ripening and longevity.
Key factors affecting fruit ripening include temperature, relative humidity, ethylene (C2H4), carbon dioxide (CO2), and oxygen (O2). These levels vary based on the type of fruit and whether the goal is to store or ripen it. Fruit continues to respire and transpire after being harvested, altering its environment through its physiological changes.
The three primary ways fruit affects its surroundings are:
• Respiration: Fruit consumes oxygen to break down sugars and produce heat, water, and carbon dioxide. Lowering the temperature during storage reduces respiration, ripening, and aging. CO2 and O2 levels also impact the rate of respiration.
• Transpiration: When there is a difference in water vapor pressure between the fruit and the surrounding air, the fruit loses water. This can lead to shriveling, spoilage of quality and flavor, and weight loss. Keeping relative humidity high during storage helps retain moisture and maintain fruit weight, which is important for maintaining its market value.

Cold storage is a widely used method for handling perishable goods in bulk between production and marketing stages. It is essential for preserving the freshness and quality of perishable commodities by controlling temperature and humidity within the storage environment. Ensuring the temperature remains sufficiently low is crucial, as failing to do so can lead to chilling damage to the produce. Additionally, maintaining a relative humidity of 85-90 percent in the storage area is vital for most perishables, as lower humidity can negatively affect their quality.
Fruits and vegetables, if stored at ambient harvest temperatures, have a very short shelf life. Post-harvest cooling helps to quickly remove field heat, thus extending the storage duration. Proper cooling after harvest can:
• Reduce respiration and enzymatic degradation;
• Minimize water loss and prevent wilting;
• Slow or stop the growth of microorganisms that cause decay;
• Lower the production of ethylene, the natural ripening agent.

Pre-cooling is an essential process in the post-harvest stage of perishable produce. It involves swiftly removing heat from freshly harvested fruits and vegetables, reducing quality loss and extending shelf life. The advantages of precooling are evident not only in the enhanced quality of the produce but also in the increased profitability for growers.
In addition to improving quality and shelf life, pre-cooling helps curb the growth of microorganisms. Lower temperatures effectively prevent the growth of both existing and potential microbes, aiding in the preservation of the produce.
Field heat, which refers to the temperature difference between the freshly harvested produce and its optimal storage temperature, highlights the importance of precooling. The method of precooling selected depends on the perishability of the produce and the refrigeration equipment available, emphasizing the need for a customized approach.
Many studies stress the importance of precooling for storing and transporting produce over long distances. In this context, the focus is not on whether to precool, but on how to choose and implement the most effective method. This underlines the critical role of precooling in maintaining the quality, shelf life, and marketability of harvested produce.
Precooling fruits and vegetables is a vital post-harvest procedure aimed at rapidly reducing the produce’s temperature to slow down metabolic processes and prolong freshness. The ideal precooling temperature varies based on the type and maturity of the produce but is typically lower than the surrounding temperature. Various methods such as hydro-cooling, vacuum cooling, and forced-air cooling can be used for precooling. Properly understanding and applying these techniques is key to preserving the quality and freshness of fruits and vegetables from the farm to the consumer.

Freezing is among the oldest and most commonly used techniques for preserving food, as it effectively maintains taste, texture, and nutritional value better than other preservation methods. This process leverages the advantages of low temperatures, which inhibit microbial growth, slow down chemical reactions, and delay cellular metabolic activities.
ROLE OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS FOR FRUITS AND
VEGETABLES
Proper collection, handling, storage, and distribution of fruits and vegetables are crucial to ensuring they reach consumers in the best possible condition. Refrigeration plays a key role in maintaining freshness and extending the shelf life of these products. Companies involved in production, processing, and marketing that implement efficient commercial and industrial refrigeration systems benefit in several ways:
• Slowing down the ripening and aging of tissue cells.
• Preventing microbial growth.
• Reducing overall quantitative and qualitative losses.

Washing is typically the first step in the fruit and vegetable production process. In small-scale operations, this is usually done in basins with recirculating water or with still water that is regularly replaced. The goal of washing is to remove dirt and contaminants from the produce before it enters the processing line, preventing potential contamination of the raw materials.
The washing should be done with clean water, as pure as possible, and if needed, the water can be made potable by adding 10 ml of a 10% sodium hypochlorite solution for every 100 liters of water. It’s also important to use tools that ensure thorough cleaning of the produce, leaving no dirt behind for the next stages of processing.
THE VEGETABLE WASHING MACHINE'S PRINCIPLE
A vegetable washing machine was designed and manufactured with the needs of micro, small, and medium-scale vegetable growers in mind. The machine focuses on high washing capacity and efficiency, with stainless steel components used to ensure the quality of the washed produce. A durable primary frame was incorporated to maintain the machine’s structural integrity.
To enhance safety and ease of use, protective coverings were added around the moving parts, while also prioritizing ergonomic design and straightforward operation and maintenance. The machine features rollers for easy mobility, and as the vegetables move along the conveyor belt at a set speed, sprinklers spray water to clean them effectively.

Washing is typically the first step in the fruit and vegetable production process. In small-scale operations, this is usually done in basins with recirculating water or with still water that is regularly replaced. The goal of washing is to remove dirt and contaminants from the produce before it enters the processing line, preventing potential contamination of the raw materials.
The washing should be done with clean water, as pure as possible, and if needed, the water can be made potable by adding 10 ml of a 10% sodium hypochlorite solution for every 100 liters of water. It’s also important to use tools that ensure thorough cleaning of the produce, leaving no dirt behind for the next stages of processing.
THE VEGETABLE WASHING MACHINE'S PRINCIPLE
A vegetable washing machine was designed and manufactured with the needs of micro, small, and medium-scale vegetable growers in mind. The machine focuses on high washing capacity and efficiency, with stainless steel components used to ensure the quality of the washed produce. A durable primary frame was incorporated to maintain the machine’s structural integrity.
To enhance safety and ease of use, protective coverings were added around the moving parts, while also prioritizing ergonomic design and straightforward operation and maintenance. The machine features rollers for easy mobility, and as the vegetables move along the conveyor belt at a set speed, sprinklers spray water to clean them effectively.

Primary processing of fruits and vegetables refers to the first steps in transforming raw agricultural products into forms more suitable for consumption, storage or further processing. This step generally includes cleaning, sorting, grading, cutting, peeling and packaging of the products. The aim of primary processing is to preserve the nutritional quality, taste and appearance of the products by extending their shelf life and making them more suitable for consumers or ready for secondary processing. For example, fruits may be peeled, cut or peeled, and vegetables may be washed, chopped, or blanched. This step is essential in the agribusiness industry because it has a direct impact on the quality and safety of the final product, ensuring that it meets market requirements, food safety standards and consumer preferences. The efficiency and methods used in primary processing significantly affect overall profitability, product quality and market competitiveness.
Primary processing refers to the initial stages of preparing fruits and vegetables for consumption while preserving their nutritional value, freshness and flavour. This essential step involves various techniques for cleaning, sorting and packaging the produce, ensuring that it reaches consumers in the best possible condition.

Zein: Prolamin which accounts for approximately half of the total storage proteins in corn. Contains minimal concentrations of lysine and tryptophan, but is rich in leucine.
Zeolites: Crystalline, hydrated alkali-aluminium silicates. Useful as catalysts for production of invert sugar from sucrose, downstream processing of flavour compounds, detoxification of contaminated foods and feeds, and as molecular sieves.
Zero energy cool chamber (ZECC): Zero energy cool chambers is an on-farm rural oriented storage structure which operates on the principle of evaporative cooling and has been constructed using locally available raw materials such as bricks, sand, bamboo, rice straw, vetiver grass, jute cloth etc. The chamber has been constructed above the ground and comprises of a double-walled structure made up of bricks. The cavity of the double wall is filled with riverbed sand. The upper part of the chamber was covered with vetiver grass mat on a bamboo frame. Zero energy cool chamber (ZECC) is a double wall structure having space between the walls which is filled with porous water absorbing materials. These pads are kept constantly wet by applying water. When unsaturated air passes through wet pad, transfer of mass and heat takes place and the energy for the evaporation process comes from the air stream. Losses can be minimized by using best post-harvest handling techniques during storage, transportation and distribution to market. There are various technologies available to create and maintain optimal temperature, relative humidity and atmospheric composition for harvested fruits and vegetables during storage.

Yakult: Yakult Original is a fermented milk drink that contains over 650 crores of beneficial bacteria called Lactobacillus casei Shirota (SHIROTA strain). It has a unique sweet and tangy taste and is enjoyed by people of all ages. It is one of the probiotic foods that is drunk to help maintain the health of the gastrointestinal tract. It has benefits like (i) Improves Digestion: The Unique bacteria in Yakult Original helps to balance the gut microbiota, aiding digestion and promoting regular bowel movements. (ii) Boosts Immunity: Regular consumption can enhance the body’s natural defences by stimulating the immune system. (iii) Supports Gut Health: By increasing the number of good bacteria in the gut, Yakult Original helps maintain a healthy digestive system.
Yeast biomass: Quantitative estimate of the total population of yeasts present in a given habitat, in terms of mass, volume or energy.
Yeast extracts: Water soluble fraction of autolysed yeasts. During autolysis, yeast enzymes hydrolyse cytoplasmic proteins and carbohydrates. Insoluble cell wall material (cellulose) is removed, e.g. by centrifugation, to leave a clear extract of water soluble cellular material that is rich in amino acids and other nutrients. Yeast extracts are used as flavourings, as a source of nutrients for microbial fermentation, and as a source of B group vitamins for fortification of foods.

Xanthan gums: Gums produced by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris. These gums are exo-polysaccharides composed of repeating pentasaccharide units comprising a cellulose backbone and trisaccharide side chains of D-mannose and D-glucuronic acid residues. The gums also contain variable quantities of pyruvic acid. It used widely in the food industry as thickeners due to their ability to produce highly viscous, highly stable aqueous solutions. Other uses include as emulsifiers, stabilizers and binding agents, and to provide body, e.g. in low fat foods.
Xanthophylls: Group of neutral yellow or brown carotenoid pigments that are oxygenated derivatives of carotenes and distributed widely in plants. It is useful as food colorants.
X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy: Spectroscopy technique in which the sample is irradiated with X-rays, causing emission of a characteristic X-ray photon and fluorescence, which is measured using a spectrophotometer.
X-rays: Penetrating electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength, able to pass through many materials. X-rays are produced by bombarding a target, usually made of tungsten, with high-speed electrons. The shorter the wavelength of the X-ray, the greater is its energy and its penetrating power. Longer wavelengths, near the UVray band of the electromagnetic spectrum, are known as soft X-rays. The shorter wavelengths, closer to and overlapping the gamma-ray range, are called hard X-rays. A mixture of many different wavelengths is known as white X-rays, as opposed to monochromatic X-rays, which represent only a single wavelength. X-rays are used in the food industry for a wide range of analytical purposes, including detection of foreign.

Wafer: A thin, crisp, unsweetened biscuit with a papery texture made by cooking a batter between hot plates, served with ice cream and sometimes sandwiched together in several layers with a sweet or savoury cream filling to form a wafer biscuit
Waffles: Light, crisp, golden brown, indented raised cakes leavened with baking powders or yeasts and typically baked in a special waffle iron, which cooks both sides simultaneously. It is often consumed as a breakfast food, acompanied by butter or maple syrups or cold with whipped cream or ice cream.
Walnut oils: Relatively expensive oils extracted from walnuts. The distinctive nutty flavour and aroma make them popular for use in salad dressings, drizzling on to cooked foods and in cooking. Sometimes used as an alternative to olive oils. To prevent development of rancidity, walnut oils are best stored in a cool, dry location, out of direct sunlight.
Walnuts: Nuts produced by trees of the genus Juglans, the most economically important species being J. regia (common or Persian walnuts), J. nigra (black walnuts) and J. cinerea (butternuts or white walnuts). Ripe nuts are rich in vitamin E and B group vitamins, while younger fruits also contain vitamin C. Used as dessert nuts, and as ingredients in confectionery, bakery products and ice cream. Oils extracted from the nuts contain a high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids and have a range of food uses.
Warehouses: Large buildings in which raw materials or manufactured goods are stored.
Warmed over flavor: It is a characteristic off flavour primarily associated with cooked meat and poultry meat in chilled ready meals and other cook chill foods. In cooked meat and poultry held at chilled storage temperatures, this stale, oxidized flavour becomes apparent within a short time (48 hours), particularly if the product is stored under air. Modified atmosphere packaging under low oxygen levels helps to delay the onset of oxidative warmed over flavour.

Vacuum cooling: It is a technique based on liquid evaporation which produces a rapid cooling effect in products containing free water. Suitable only where removal of the free water will not cause structural damage and where there is no barrier, e.g. a thick wax cuticle, to water loss. Subjecting suitable products to vacuum pressure allows part of the water contained in them to boil out at relatively low temperatures. Used successfully in reducing postharvest deterioration in fruits and vegetables, thus prolonging shelf life, during processing of some products, including liquid foods and bakery products, and rapid cooling of cooked meat, fish products and ready meals.
Vacuum drying: Removal of liquid from a solid mate rial while in a vacuum system, to lower the temperature at which evaporation takes place and thus prevent heat damage to the material. It may be used with frozen food.
Vacuum evaporation: Concentration technique in which the use of high temperatures is avoided by subjecting the substance to a vacuum, causing it to boil at a lower temperature. The process is performed in a chamber surrounded by a water jacket through which water is circulated to control temperature. Particularly useful for products where heat-induced protein de- naturation should be avoided, e.g. liquid egg whites and skim milk.
Vacuum flask thermostat: An electrically or mechanically operated instrument which monitors the temperature in an enclosure and if it deviates from a preset value increases or reduces the energy input to or abstracts more or less energy from the space to maintain the preset temperature. Commonly used in gas or electric ovens, refrigerators and freezers, deep fat fryers, slow cookers and the like.

UHT milk: Milk heated by UHT treatment to prolong shelf life.it is also known as long life milk.
Ultra High Temperature (UHT) treatment: A heat treatment (direct or indirect) used to sterilize foods prior to packaging in which to kill all microorganisms that would otherwise spoil the product. Following UHT treatment, foods are filled into pre-sterilized containers in a sterile atmosphere. Food products processed by UHT treatment include liquid products (e.g. milk, some fruit juices, cream, yoghurt, wines, salad dressings), foods with discrete particles (e.g. infant foods, tomato products, some fruit juices and vegetable juices, soups), and foods containing larger particles (e.g. stews).
Ultracentrifugation: Centrifugation in centrifuges which have the ability to develop centrifugal fields of up to 100,000 times that of the gravitational field. Ultracentrifugation is generally used for analytical purposes, such as the determination of physico-chemical properties of food polysaccharides using sedimentation analysis.
Ultrafiltration: Selective membrane separation process, driven by a pressure gradient, in which suspended solids, colloids, emulsified solids such as fat-protein complexes, and dissolved macromolecules with molecular weight in the range 10,000-100,000 Da are retained by the membranes. Molecules that do not pass through the membranes constitute the retentate. Lower molecular weight dissolved materials that pass through the membrane under a driving force of relatively low hydrostatic pressure (1-10 bar) are the permeate. Ultrafiltration is generally used in the concentration and fractionation of large molecules from materials such as cheese whey and milk.

Table jellies: Fruit flavoured sweetened desserts set with gelatin or similar gelling agents.
Table salt: A fine-grained, free-flowing salt suitable for being dispensed at the table from a salt shaker. It is pure sodium chloride with the addition of anti-caking agents, a function which was performed before additives by a few grains of dry rice.
Tagatose: Ketose monosaccharide comprising six carbon atoms (hexoses); an isomer of galactose. It has sweetness similar to that of sucrose but no calorific value, making it suitable as a low-calorie sweetener and bulking agent. Formed by bacterial fermentation using galactitol as substrate or produced from lactose via isomerization of galactose.
Taints: Sensory properties relating to the perception of off flavour or off odour in a product. Taints in foods can be related to, for example, warmed over flavour in ready meals or boar taint in pork products.
Tallow: Solid animal fats normally derived from cattle or sheep tissue, containing high levels of saturated fatty acids and monounsaturated fatty acids (triglycerides of stearic acid, palmitic acid and oleic acid). It is white, flavourless, odourless and solid at room temperature. It is usually prepared by heating suet under pressure in closed vessels. It is used for frying and in shortenings. Tamper evident closures: Closures designed to ensure that any unauthorized interference is evident.
Tamper evident packaging: Packaging designed to ensure that any unauthorized interference is evident.

Saccharification: Process by which oligosaccharides and polysaccharides are degraded to produce smaller sugar units. It involves acid, alkali or enzymic (e.g. cellulases, amylases) hydrolysis of glucosidic bonds. Term is used frequently to describe hydrolysis of wastes, e.g. sugar cane bagasse or other lignocellulosic materials to produce substrates for microbial fermentation.
Saccharimeters: Devices used for measuring degree of rotation produced during transmission of polarized light through a sugar solution. When a standardized saccharimeter is used, this property is a function of the concentration of a sugar solution. In the sugar industry the rotation value (Pol) is used as a measure of sucrose content due to the low concentrations of other sugars.
Saccharin: It is a heterocyclic organic sulfur compound (o-benzosulfimide) that has approximately 300-600 times the sweetness of sucrose and is used in artificial sweeteners. It is available as the free acid and as sodium or calcium salts. Like sugar, saccharin salts are white crystalline solids that are highly soluble in water, but unlike sugar they are non-nutritive and impart a bitter metallic aftertaste.
Saccharometer: It is a graduated devices i.e.hydrometer which is directly calibrated with the percentage of sugar in the sugar/water solution. It is also used for determination of the density of sugar solutions, based on the level at which the device floats. It is also known as hydrometers.

Rabadi: Traditional fermented food of India, prepared by fermentation of a mixture of flour made usually from pearl millet, and buttermilk. Cereal flour may be partially substituted by that prepared from soybeans or other vegetables.
Rabri: Concentrated and sweetened buffalo milk product with a flaky/layered texture. It is popular in India. Traditionally, milk standardized to 6% fat is heated at approximately 90°C with repeated removal of clotted cream (malai), sugar is added to the concentrated milk and finally the clotted cream is added back to the con- centrated sweetened milk.
In a commercial method, shredded chhana or paneer is used in place of clot- ted cream. Rabri has a relatively short shelf life.
Racking: Process of drawing off wines or beer from the sediment in the barrel.
Radappertization: The production of food free from spoilage microorganisms using ionizing radiation
Radiation: Energy emitted in the form of electromag- netic waves or subatomic particles.
Radical scavenging activity: Ability to trap organic free radicals formed by the splitting of molecular bonds. This protects cellular membranes from oxidative destruction and ultimately prevents DNA damage caused by the action of the radicals which can lead to carcinogenesis. Substances with high radical scavenging activity include antioxidant vitamins, such as α-tocopherol.

Quality assurance: Planned and systematic actions necessary to provide adequate confidence that goods or services will satisfy given requirements. For the food industry, this is a customer-focused management system, whose aim is to guarantee food safety and con- sistent product quality by application of production, processing and handling standards. Proactive food safety programmes, in particular those based
on Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) principles, are the foundation of many food quality as- surance systems.
Quality control: A system of maintaining standards in manufactured products by testing a sample against the specification.
Quantitative descriptive analysis: Comprehensive system used in sensory analysis that covers sample collection, assessor screening, vocabulary development, testing and data analysis. Quantitative descriptive analysis (commonly abbreviated to QDA) uses small numbers of highly trained assessors. Once the training sessions have established satisfactory panel performance, and removal of ambiguities and misunderstandings, the test samples can be evaluated. This is carried out in replicated sessions using experimental designs that minimize biases. Three major steps are required: development of standardized vocabulary; quantification of selected sensory
characteristics; and analysis of results by parametric statistics.

Packaging films: Packaging materials in the form of thin sheets which can be wrapped round a product. Films can be made from synthetic materials, such as plastics, or natural substances, such as whey proteins.
Packaging materials: Substances used to make packs. Packaging for foods is commonly made from a variety of materials, including glass, plastics, rubber, wood and paper, which are formed into a range of container types. The type of material chosen depends on the product to be packaged and the intended use.
Packaging: Enclosure or wrapping of products. Functions include product containment for handling, transportation and use, preservation, optimization of product presentation, hygiene and to facilitate product dispensing and use. The term covers retail (primary), grouped (secondary) and transport (tertiary) forms.
Packinghouses: Establishments in which products are packed.
Packs: Containers of varying shapes and sizes made from paper, plastics, cardboard or other materials that are used to enclose items such as food. The term is also used to describe items or groups of items which are packed in containers or enclosed in packaging materials.
Pakora: Indian snack foods consisting of pieces of spiced meat and/or vegetables enclosed in batters containing besan or chickpea flour and deep fried. Deep-fried and served hot with chutney. The fritters

Oat bran: Outer layer found under the hull of the oat grain which forms the milling fraction.
Oat fibre: Indigestible material derived from oat grains, consumption of which is reported to reduce serum cholesterol.
Oat flour: Flour ground from oats which their outer layers have been removed. It does not contain much gluten and must be combined with wheat flour to make a bread which rises. It is used as an ingredient in bakery products and snack foods.
Oat germ: The germ of the oat grain separated during the process of making oat flour. It is usually mixed with oat bran to a brown powder which can be used to make a thin porridge or added to other flours for use in bread making.
Oat oils: Oils extracted from oats which is highly unsaturated and containing high levels of linoleic acid.
Oatmeal: Coarsely ground or cracked dehusked oats separated by sieving into various particle sizes, usually fine, medium and coarse, but superfine and pinhead can be found
Oatrim: Fibre-rich fat substitute made from oat flour and oat bran which is used in bakery products, salad dressings, confectionery and dairy products.
Obesity: It is a condition in which the body’s weight is beyond the limit of skeletal and physical requirements due to excessive accumulation of fat. Possible causes include overeating, an inappropriate diet, genetic factors and metabolic disorders. Obesity is associated with an increased risk of developing a range of diseases, including adult onset diabetes, cardiovas cular diseases and certain types of cancer. In some cases, obesity can be reversed through measures such as adoption of a low-calorie diet, making changes to lifestyle or consuming functional foods designed for this purpose.

Nan (bread): A yeast-raised bread made from white flour and yoghurt, cooked very quickly as a large flat pear shaped bread on the side of a tandoori oven. The shaped dough is moistened so that it sticks to the side of the oven and is hooked off when cooked. It served with Indian meals. Or Flat bread originating from northwest India is made from white flour, leavened with sodium bicarbonate and baked in a tandoor.
Nanofiltration: Form of filtration that uses semi-permeable membranes of pore size 0.001- 0.1 μm to separate different fluids or ions, removing materials having molecular weights in the order of 300-1000 Da. Nanofiltration is most commonly used to separate solutions that have a mixture of desirable and undesirable components. An example of this is the concentration of corn syrups. Nanofiltration is capable of removing ions that contribute significantly to osmotic pressure, and this allows separation at pressures that are lower than those needed for reverse osmosis.  Naringenin: Non-bitter flavanone found mainly in citrus fruits, but also in other fruits, e.g. tomatoes.
Naringin: Bitter glycoside present in citrus fruits.
Natamycin: Polyene antibiotic with antifungal activity used topically on skin and mucous membranes for treatment of ringworm in cattle and horses. Absorption through dermal tissues of treated animals is normally negligible. Also used as a fungicide on bulbs such as onions and garlic. It is also known as pimaricin.
Natural flavourings: Flavour compounds, also essential oils, extracts and hydrolysates containing flavour compounds, that are derived from natural sources, such as plants, animal foods and edible yeasts. Usually they have little or no nutritive value but are used solely to impart flavour.
Natural foods: Foods produced by natural farming and using natural processing methods, e.g. without the use of added salt, sugar and preservatives. It is similar to organic foods but not necessarily totally organic.

Macaroni: Thick hollow tubes of pasta which are usually short and curved.
Macaroons: Small chewy cakes or cookies made from ground almonds/almond paste or coconut, sugar and egg whites. It is ften baked on rice paper.
Maceration: Softening or breaking up of foods by soaking in a liquid, or the soaking of foods (usually fruits) in a liquid in order to absorb the flavour. Spirits or liqueurs are often used as the macerating liquid.
Machine vision: Inspection systems in which samples are examined using a camera, the image from which is analysed by computer using image processing algorithms. Operations which can be performed include defect detection, dimensions measurement, orientation detection, grading, sorting and counting.
Magnesium (Mg): One of the essential mineral nutrients which is widely distributed in plant and animal foods, good sources including fruits, vegetables and dairy products. Standard Western diets generally contain adequate levels of magnesium, so fortification is largely unnecessary. Absorption of dietary magnesium may be affected by other dietary nutrients such as calcium, phosphate and vitamin D, and also by some clinical conditions, including alcoholism and diabetes. Magnesium is an important bone constituent and intracellular inorganic cation acting as an essential cofactor in many enzymic reactions. Magnesium deficiency can cause calcification of soft tissues, electrolyte imbalances, gastrointestinal symptoms and personality changes. If taken in excess, magnesium toxicity symptoms can include nausea, vomiting, hypotension and neurological changes.

Labelling: Process of attaching labels to items to make them identifiable, or the information included on the labels. For foods, information may include barcodes, brand names, trademarks, illustrative matter, and compositional and nutritional details.
Labels: Pieces of paper, plastics or fabric which are attached to and provide information about an item. For foods, this information may include branding or the trademarks of a food company, the geographical origin, date marking, compositional details, health claims, nutritional values and warnings relating to specific ingredients, e.g. nuts. The content of informa- tion on food labels is often governed by legislation.
Lacquers: Liquids consisting of resins, cellulose esters, shellac or similar synthetic substances dissolved in a solvent, such as ethyl alcohol. Dry to form shiny, hard, protective or decorative coatings for plastics, wood, metals and other products.
Lactacins: Bacteriocins synthesized by Lactoba cillus spp. that are inhibitory only to other lactobacilli. Lactacin A is produced by L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis JCM 1106 and 1107. It has a narrow host range and is heat labile. Lactacin B is produced by L. acidophilus N2, and its synthesis is chromosomally linked. This protein forms aggregates of molecular weight 100,000 Da; however, the actual molecular weight of lactacin B is 6000-6500 Da. Lactacin F is produced by L. acidophilus 88, and its synthesis is plasmid linked. It has a broader activity range than lactacin B, and forms ag- gregates of molecular weight 180,000 Da; however, the actual molecular weight of lactacin F is 25,000 Da.

Kachauri: A type of pitta bread made into a pocket and stuffed with a spiced bean mixture.
Kalakand: Sweetened dairy product that is popular in India. It is made by evaporating acidified buffalo milk.
Kanji: Traditional Indian beverage made from black carrots. Peculiar to the northern plains of India, black carrots are black on the outside but a rich red colour under the skin. The carrots are parboiled in water with salt and other flavourings such as ground mustard seeds and chilli powder. The mixture is then left to ferment in the sun, resulting in a sour and spiced red drink which is consumed as an accompaniment to meals.
Kava: Beverage made by aqueous extraction of powders prepared from rhizomes of kava kava (Piper methysticum). It is used in the south Pacific region as a narcotic/stimulant. It is also used in treatment of anxiety and a range of disorders. The pharmacologically active components are lactones. Non-addictive, but can have adverse effects, such as muscle weakness, drying of the skin, and liver damage, if consumed over a long period of time or in high amounts. Kawal: Strong-smelling pastes prepared by fermentation of leaves of the legume Cassia obtusifolia. It is rich in protein. It is used as meat substitutes in soups and stews.
KCl: It is chemical formula for potassium chloride. One of the chlorides widely used in food processing at varying levels to replace salt (NaCl), for example in brines, in order to reduce Na levels in foods, and specifically to produce low sodium foods and salt substitutes.

Jaggery or Gur: Unrefined brown coloured sugar produced mainly in India by evaporation of sugar cane juices. Or a crude brown sugar made from the sap of coconut or palmyra palm trees, sold in round cakes or lumps.
Jam: A fruit preserve made by mixing fruit or boiling it with sugar and water and adding extra gelling agent if required, usually pectin. The high sugar concentration inhibits but does not totally prevent proliferation of microorganisms, so jam is usually bottled hot in sterile jars with a seal, or sterilized after bottling.
Jasmine: Natural flavourings with warm, spicy characteristics derived from flowers and leaves of jasmine (Jasminus spp.). Predominant flavour compounds and aroma compounds include jasmonates, jasmones, benzyl acetate, indol and eugenol.
Jellied milk: Milk to which is added sugar, flavourings, thickening agents and gelling agents. It is also known as jellified milk.
Jellies: Small, soft sweets, usually fruit flavoured, of gelatinous texture, made in various shapes and often coated with sugar. The singular term, jelly, is used to refer to jam-like products, usually clear, that are made from strained fruits containing pectins which are boiled with sugar. Also refers to soft, semi- transparent foods prepared from gelatin which are sweetened, flavoured, cooled in a mould and eaten as desserts.

Ice cream cones: Thin, slightly sweetened, wafers baked on a waffle iron and curled before cooling to form a cone shape. It is used to hold one or more scoops of ice cream.
Ice cream mixes: Commercial products used in manufacture of ice cream. Contain all the main components of the final product, including milk, cream, sugar, flavourings and emulsifiers.
Ice cream wafers: Thin, slightly sweetened, waffle textured wafers that are usually triangular or rectangular and served as an accompaniment to ice cream or used to make an ice cream sandwich.
Ice cream: Frozen dairy product with creamy, smooth and crystalline consistency. In addition to milk and dairy products such as cream, milk powders, butter and sweetened condensed milk, also con- tains sugar, flavourings and additives such as emulsifiers and stabilizers. The ingredient mix is processed in an ice cream freezer where it is frozen by contact with the refrigerated wall, blades scraping the mixture from the walls while whipping air into the ice cream. The soft-serve ice cream produced can be hard- ened further by placing in a suitable freezing apparatus. Ice nucleation activity: Promotion of the formation of ice crystals. Agents displaying ice nucleation activity include small particles, such as food particles, and large molecules, such as ice nucleating proteins.
Ice: Frozon or solid form of water, used for numerous food processing applications, including chilling and glazing of foods (e.g. fish). It is used in place of water where intense agitation or prolonged processing might overheat a mixture. The energy necessary to melt ice would heat the same mass of water by 80°C. Small pieces of ice, e.g. ice cubes or crushed ice, may be added to beverages to cool them, while ice crystal characteristics play an important role in determining the quality of frozen foods. Flavoured ice is consumed in the form of ice lollies and water ices. It is also used for cooling.

Haem: Iron-containing compounds in which the iron is complexed in a porphyrin ring. Component of pigments such as haemoglobin, myoglobin and cytochromes. The iron atoms can bind oxygen in a reversible fashion or conduct electrons. Alternative spelling heme.
Haemoglobin: Oxygen-carrying protein which is found in the blood of animals. Haem groups within the protein bind oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin, which is carried to oxygen-depleted cells where the oxygen is released. Other inorganic compounds, including carbon dioxide, can also be bound by the haem groups. Alternative spelling hemoglobin.
Haemoproteins: General term for haem-containing proteins, including haemoglobin, myoglobin, cytochromes, catalases and peroxidases.
Halal foods: Foods permitted under Islamic dietary law, particularly meat from animals that have been slaughtered according to accepted Islamic procedures. For foods to be certificated as halal (lawful), they must be free from haram (unlawful, prohibited) substances, such as pork and swine by-products, carrion and intoxicants such as alcohol.
Half butter: Butter product with a low fat content of approximately 39-41%.
Half cream: Cream product with a fat content of approximately 12%.
 

Galactose: Monosaccharide with six carbon atoms which occurs naturally as a component of many complex plant-derived polysaccharides, such as pectins and gums. It constituent of lactose from which it may be produced by hydrolysis. It has approximately 40% the sweetness of sucrose and is used in sweeteners. It is this monosaccharide liberated in the body which is responsible for lactose intolerance. One of the common monosaccharides which in combination with glucose form lactose, the sugar in milk.
Galactosides: Glycosides formed from mixing galactose with an alcohol; on hydrolysis, galactose is produced.
Galgals: Type of lemons produced by Citrus pseu- dolimon, which are indigenous to and cultivated on a commercial scale in India. Used in manufacture of pickles and as a source of fruit juices, peel, pectins and essential oils.
Gallates: Esters of gallic acid used as antioxidants in oils, fats and essential oils only. Those available are propyl gallate, E310, octyl gallate, E311 and dodecyl gallate, E312.
Gallic acid: Organic acid with antioxidative activity which occurs naturally as a component of tannins., e.g. in tea. Gallic acid esters, such as octyl gallate and propyl gallate, are used as antioxidants in the food industry.
Gamma irradiation: Exposure of foods to gamma rays, generated by radioactive decay of cobalt-60 (60Co) or caesium-137 (137Cs). It is used for sterilization or preservation purposes. Irradiation delays ripening of fruits and vegetables, inhibits sprouting in bulbs and tubers, causes disinfestation of grain, cereal products, fresh and dried fruits and vegetables, and destroys bacteria in fresh meat. Continued consumer concern over the safety of irradiation and irradiated foods has limited its full-scale use.