eChapters

Word manure derived from French ‘Manoeuvrer, means to manipulate, to work, to produce crop.

11.1. Sources of organic wastes

Cattle shed wastes, dung, urine and slurry from biogas plants.

Human habitation wastes-night soil, human urine, town refuse, sewage, sludge and sullage.

Poultry jitter, droppings of sheep and goat.

Slaughterhouse wastes-bone meal, meat meal, blood meal, horn and hoof meal, fish wastes.

Byproducts of agro industries-oil cakes, bagasse and press mud, fruit and vegetable processing wastes etc.

Introduction

Brinjal, Solanum melongena L. a solanaceous and the native vegetable of India is very favourite among the Indians. It is an economically important vegetable among the small scale farmers and low income consumers of India. It ensures some assured source of income to the resource poor farmers throughout the year due to long fruiting and harvesting period. Brinjal fruits are of a low calorie value and have a mineral composition that is beneficial for human health; these fruits are rich source of minerals (potassium, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine, iron etc.) and vitamins and have some medicinal importance (Choudhary, 1967). In India, brinjal is grown on the wide range of soils and other variable environmental conditions. In production and productivity, India stands second in the world after China which is mainly grown in the states like West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. The world production of brinj al in the year 2016 was estimated to be 51.29 million MT in an area of 1.79 million hectare with productivity of 28.59 MT per ha China, the world leader of brinjal production produced 32.03 million tones of brinjal with a productivity of40.96 Mt per ha in an area of 0.78 million ha. The productivity of brinjal as compared to China is very less (18.90 MT/ha) in India although we are the second largest producer ofthis popular vegetable (FAOSTAT Website (http://faostat3.fao.org/home/E).

Weeds are the plants growing where and when they are not desired. They compete with crops for soil moisture, nutrients, solar radiation and space, and thus reduce crop yields. Weeds also act as alternate hosts that harbour insect pests and diseases and other microorganisms. Some weeds release poisonous substances into the soil which may be harmful to crop plants, human and livestock. Weeds reduce the quality of marketable produce and render harvesting difficult, leading to increased expenditure on labours, equipment and chemicals for their removal.

Classification of weeds

A. Based on life cycle

Annuals-Complete their life cycle in a year or in a single growing season. Based on the season they may be summer annuals and winter annuals.
Summer annual e.g, Echinochloa crusgalli

Xanthophylls (Carotenoids): These are tetraterpenes with general formula C₄₀H₅₆O₂. Xanthophylls are a class of oxygen-containing carotenoid pigments, responsible for the color of many of the yellow, orange, and red hues of flowers, fruits, vegetables (corn, pepper, etc.), egg yolks, and feathers, shells, or flesh of many animal species (flamingo, canary, shrimp, lobster, chicken, or salmonids). In plants, they are involved in photosynthesis with chlorophyll and are responsible for the red, yellow, and/or brown colors of autumn foliage as the chlorophyll levels decline.

Xeromorphy: Morphological characteristics, such as small, tough leaves, a heavy cuticle, etc., that are generally important for adaptation to dry environmental conditions.

The word ‘chlamydia’ comes from the Greek word ‘chlamys’ means ‘cloak draped around the shoulder’. It describes how the intracytoplasmic inclusions produced by the bacterium appear under the microscope(‘draped’ around the host cell nucleus). Chlamydia was first discovered by a Czech zoologist and parasitologist, Stanislaus von Prowazek in 1907 in Berlin. Originally because of its structure it was thought to be a virus. In 1963 it was recognized as a bacterium rather than a virus.

Properties of genus

1. Morphology: Chlamydia are Gram-negative, non-motile, pleomorphic and obligate intracellular bacteria. The Gram-negative cell wall consists of cytoplasmic and outer membrane. However, they lack peptidoglycan layer. Moreover, they also encode major outer membrane protein (MOMP), the key antigenic determinant used for serological differentiation of chlamydiae.

They are poorly stained by Gram’s stain. Chlamydiae are readily stained by Castaneda (blue in appearance), Giemnez and Macchiavello (red in appearance) methods. However, Giemsa staining is preferable to stain the inclusions (chlamydial micro colony) in the cell culture. Inclusion bodies of the Chlamydiae are basophilic in nature. The staining of the inclusion bodies may differ depending on the species. In C. trachomatis, the inclusion bodies contain glycogen matrix and can be easily stained with iodine solution.

1. Introduction

Gender equality in agriculture is a long time demand to achieve the sustainable agricultural development goals. According to the World Bank (2009) differences in the socially constructed gender roles and gender relations affect agricultural development as it creates inequality in the distribution, access to and control over agricultural resources between men and women; that in turn affect the agricultural development outcomes. However, role of men and women in agriculture is not constant across the world due to the disparities existing in the allocation of productive farm resources to women and men among different societies and cultures. Most of the agrarian social systems recognize men as the key players of crop production due to their ownership over agricultural land and other resources. This often masks the significance of activities carried out by farm women in the crop production process. Currently agriculture provides employment to nearly 27.2 percent men and 25.4 percent women globally (World Bank, 2020). Irrespective of the unequal power relations between men and women, their relative representation in the agriculture workforce remained almost equal throughout the years. Hence, it became inevitable to address the concerns of both genders in agriculture rather than concentrating only on women centric issues while formulating programmes and policies aiming agricultural development. These trends in agriculture motivated social researchers like Safiliou (1990) to propose gender as a ‘variable’ similar to ‘social class’ to rationalize agriculture. Globally, gender based researches has covered various dimensions of contributions of men and women in agriculture as cultivators as well as agricultural labours in different time period. However, studies on topics related to women’s rights, women empowerment, and gender equality in order to achieve food security and agricultural development has increasingly been carried out after the “fourth world conference on women: action for equity, development

and peace” held at Beijing (China) during 4-15 September, 1995. Though gender research in agriculture mostly revolves around farm women and their empowerment concepts like marketing extension, market-led extension etc., it has led to the empowerment of both women and men cultivators.

The chapter discusses the concept of gender in research and development, its evolution and its integration into research perspectives in agriculture. A brief description of gender analysis tools is also included.

Agri-nanotechnology is a new branch of biology that has originated due to the compatibility of nanosized inorganic and organic particles with biological functions. Based on enhanced effectiveness, the new age drugs are nanoparticles of polymers, metals, or ceramics, which can facilitate several biological applications. Plant diseases are caused by pathogens including fungi, bacteria, mycoplasma, viruses and viroids, nematodes, parasitic plants, and protozoa. 

Objectives

1. To know the methods of essential oil extraction of spices and condiments.
2. To know the various chemicals present in the essential oil of different spices and condiments.

Essential oil: Essential oils are the liquids that are isolated from plants when introduced to solvents. They are liquefied versions of the plants.

Extraction methods of essential oil

1. Steam Distillation
2. Solvent Extraction
   1. CO₂ Extraction
   2. Maceration
   3. Enfleurage
3. Water Distillation
4. Water and Steam Distillation

The major functions of the musculoskeletal system to provide support to organs and help in physical activities including locomotion, prehension, and
mastication. The clinical manifestations of the diseases of muscles, bones and joints are much in common, and are generally characterized by lameness,
failure of support, in coordination of movement and deformity.

Twitching is a condition occurring predominantly on the surface of the fruit which is exposed to direct sunlight; however, it is not well understood what the source of the disease is. Growth in immature fruits cannot be detected during later stages of fruit maturity. On cv. Golden Solo Party there are a few examples. This is termed the “frog skin” or “fox skin.” It shows on the fruit’s surface as the Dark Brown Flecks. 

Abstract

This chapter examines how agricultural credit is a vital input for all agricultural development programmes. Private moneylenders used to be the main source of agricultural credit. However, this source was insufficient, costly and oppressive. To overcome this, a multi-agency approach involving cooperatives, commercial banks and regional rural banks has been adopted to provide cheaper, timely and adequate credit to farmers.

Observation recording: The students are advised to visit the different forests areas and identify various insects and pests damaging trees in various ways like leaf feeding (defoliator), stem boring (stem borer) damaging seeds (seed borer) etc and various pathogens.

Abstract

Proteins are complex molecules composed of one or more polypeptide chains made up of amino acid residues. These molecules perform a variety of essential functions in living organisms, including DNA replication, molecule transport, catalyzing metabolic processes, and providing structural support to cells. In this chapter, we explore the four levels of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Primary structure refers to the specific sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain, while secondary structure describes the folding of the chain into alpha-helices, beta-sheets, or other patterns. Tertiary structure is the three-dimensional shape of a single polypeptide chain, and quaternary structure refers to the interactions between multiple polypeptide chains to form a larger protein complex. Additionally, this chapter covers various methods used to predict protein structure, including homology modeling, ab initio prediction, and threading algorithms.

Plant propagation refers to the process of increasing number of plants of a cultivar. Plant propagation is of two types viz. sexual and asexual. Sexual propagation is done by seeds, whereas asexual plant propagation is done by vegetative means such as stem/root cuttings, slips, corm, bulbs, rhizomes, grafting, budding, layering, etc. Good quality seed or planting material of established crop varieties should be procured from authentic source to get desired result. The seed should be uniform in size, free from disease infestation, possess good vigour and having good viability. The quality of the seed is decided based on germination percentage. Seeds can be directly sown to raise a crop or seedlings are raised in nursery beds, which are transplanted later to main plot.

Seedlings can be raised in nursery beds, poly bags or pro-trays. The nursery beds are usually kept one meter wide, convenient length and of 15 cm height. The soil of the bed is prepared by addition of well decomposed bulky organic manure, sand and garden soil in equal proportion. The beds have to be disinfected by exposing the soil to sun (solarisation) and addition of neem or karanj oil cake. After sowing the seeds in the bed, those are covered with straw, leaves or compost to protect the seeds from birds and to conserve moisture in the soil. It also helps to maintain the temperature for quick germination. The seeds are sown in lines on the bed.

The litchi or ‘lychee’ (Litchi chinensis Sonnen) is an evergreen subtropical fruit tree of the family Sapindaceae. It is known for its delicious fragrance, quality and juicy fruits contributing significantly to the nation’s economy. India is the second largest producer of litchi in the world after China with an area and production of 82,000 ha and 555,000 tonnes, respectively during 2012-13 (DAC, 2013).So far as Eastern India is concerned, Jharkhand, Bihar and West Bengal accounts for 85% of the total litchi production in the country. The state Bihar alone contributes 45% of total litchi production and occupies nearly 40% of the area in India. In India litchi is being grown in an area of 89000 ha with a total production of 556 000 MT annually (http://nhb.gov.in).

Introduction The asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L.) is an herbaceous perennial plant and known as Shatawar in Hindi. It is grown for tender succulent shoots known as ‘Spears’ which are used as vegetable and in the preparation of soup. Once the plant established, it continues to produce yield for 10-15 years. The juice obtained from spears contain a white crystalline substance called ‘Asparagine’ which has diuretic properties. Asparagus is a type of vegetable that is commonly enjoyed for its unique taste and nutritional benefits. Asparagus has a distinctive spear-like shape, with a green, purple, or white colour depending on the variety. Asparagus is a low-calorie (20 Kcal) vegetable that is rich in protein (2.2 g), vitamins, including vitamins B1 (0.143 g), Vitamin B2 (0.141 g), Vitamin C (5.6 g), Vitamin E (1.13 g) and Vitamin K (41.6 µg), as well as minerals including calcium (24 mg), iron (2.14 mg), potassium (202 mg), zinc (0.54 mg), sodium (2.0 mg) and magnesium (14 mg) per 100 g raw asparagus. It is also a good source of antioxidants, which help to protect the body against damage from free radicals. Asparagus can be cooked in a variety of ways, including boiling, steaming, roasting, or grilling. It is a popular ingredient in many dishes, such as salads, soups, pastas, and stir fries. Asparagus is also often served as a side dish, either on its own or with other vegetables.

3.1 Overview of pyrolysis technology

Pyrolysis is a process derived from the Ancient Greek words “pyro” meaning f ire and “lysis” meaning separation, which means separating by using heat or fire. This is a thermochemical conversion process that converts biomass into a useful intermediate liquid product, which can be further transformed into a hydrocarbon biofuel, oxygenated fuel additive, or substitute for petrochemicals. Pyrolysis is similar or overlapping with other thermochemical processes such as cracking, carbonization, torrefaction, destructive distillation, dry distillation, and thermolysis. It is not related to gasification, which involves chemical reactions with a gasification medium.

As stated before, a careful assessment of the existing curriculum is essential before any modification is undertaken and must take into account the country’s education policy, political, economic, demographic, cultural, social and technological environment. Problems of farmers to be solved, needs to be satisfied, and priorities to be identified and addressed and then only the recommendations made for action.

Purpose of Growing Microgreens in Space Farming

Microgreens are a perfect dietary ingredient in space because of their special benefits, which have been explained in earlier chapters. In an atmosphere of a spaceship with limited water and electrical power for artificial illumination, their comparatively low light and water consumption are advantageous. Furthermore, because spaceships and shelters have limited capacity, microgreens' tiny size might be advantageous. Given the right sanitization procedures, microgreens may be harvested fresh and consumed right away. Their striking colour and robust flavour may also improve meal presentation and pique astronauts' appetites. 

Introduction

Community-based fisheries management (CBFM), in which a community takes responsibility for managing its adjacent livelihood habitats with government or third-party assistance, can take both aquatic and terrestrial forms. CBFM plays an important role in managing aquatic ecosystems, fisheries, and communities using either traditional or scientific methods. If something bad happens, the locals take immediate action and deal with it in a systematic manner.