eChapters

Abstract

84 per cent of the Indian rural women livelihood depends on agriculture. It is estimated that 52-75 per cent of the Indian women engaged in agriculture are illiterate. Prevalence of anaemia among pregnant women ranges between 50%-90%. From these facts it infers that ghost of food and nutritional security haunts the rural women health and prosperity. Female participation in the economic activities also determines the sex ratio because the work determines the worth in the society. It has been observed that in those families where women participate in economic activities, this problem is not severe as compared to those families which do not participate in economic activities. Diverse areas of entrepreneurship exists in rural India for women empowerment. This potential can be realized through policy and infrastructure support from the government and by strengthening proactive synergies among various farm and non-farm sectors activities. Although we are proud of the Indian women in the global arena yet we have peer into the atrocities against them in the name of female foeticide, gender inequality, sexual harassment, dowry system and many more evils with promotion of involvement in socio-economic enterprises, if rural transformation is to be achieved.

1. Choose the correct option for the characteristic of growth.

 a) It is an irreversible permanent increase in size of an organ or its parts or

even of an individual cell

 b)  It is accompanied by metabolic processes

 c) It occurs at the expense of energy

 d)  All of the above

2. Plant growth is unique because

 a) Plants bear the capacity for unlimited growth

 b)  Plants bear the capacity for limited growth

 c) Plants have diffused growth that differs from animals

 d)  None of the above  

Introduction to Antibiotic Discovery

Antibiotics are the drugs that are used to treat illnesses caused by bacteria in humans and animals. These act by killing or inhibiting the growth and multiplication of bacteria. Antibiotics were considered as “magic bullets” that selectively kills microbes responsible for disease causation, but at the same time would not affect the host (Zaman et al., 2017).

Louis Pasteur in 1877, first discovered the properties of antibacterial compounds with the inhibition of anthrax by saprophytic bacteria. In 1928, Alexander Fleming observed that the growth of Staphylococcus aureus in petri dishes was inhibited by substances produced by the fungus Penicillium chrysogenum, which led to the discovery of the first antibiotic, penicillin (Aminov, 2017). Selman Waksman, discovered multiple antibiotics from filamentous actinomycetes living in the soil and defined an antibiotic as “a compound made by a microbe to destroy other microbes”. Following the discovery of Penicillin, various antimicrobial compounds such as sulphonamides, aminoglycosides, tetracyclines, lipopeptides, oxazolidinones, glycopeptides, streptogramins, and quinolones were discovered in the “Golden era” of antibiotics during the period from the 1940s to the 1960s and most of the antibiotics still in current use were discovered during that period (Salam et al., 2023). Millions of metric tons of newer classes of antibiotics have been produced in last 60 years since its inception.

The hot arid regions are spread over about 31.7 million ha area mainly in the States of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana, which inhabit on an average 61 persons per square km making up a population of nearly 20 million people. The Indian arid zone is characterized by high temperature and low and variable precipitation which limit the scope for high horticultural productivity. However, these conditions greatly favour development of high quality production of fruits such as date palm, ber, pomegranate, citrus, aonla, bael, grapes, guava and in vegetables such as cucurbitaceous crops, spices and some medicinal plants. The optimized technologies and inputs could increase the existing low productivity. It is now realized that there is a limited scope for quantum jump in fruit and vegetable production in the traditional production areas. The amelioration of the extreme conditions is also considered vital for life support to the inhabitants of this area.

Abstract

Soil is the store house of 1/4^th of the global biodiversity. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi is one of the important group of organism occurring in soil. The beneficial effect of AM fungi in improving plant growth is well documented. Many of the functions performed by AM fungi can provide essential services to human society. These services include nutrient cycling, soil structure, plant growth promotion, resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses and bioregulation of plant development. These services are not only essential to ecosystem function but also a critical resource for the sustainable management of agricultural systems. Recent studies have brought out that both plant biodiversity and ecosystem productivity increases with the increasing number of AM fungi. Thus, it appears that the diversity of AM fungi in soil is a major factor contributing to the maintenance of plant biodiversity and the ecosystem functioning. The role of AM fungi in ecosystem services, plant diversity and land productivity are discussed in this review.

The market of organic products is growing globally every year. This organic market expansion makes it possible for farmers to reap the benefits of a trade with relatively high price premiums. Organic farming is carried on in almost all countries of the world. The share of organic farms in overall farmland and in terms of numbers of holdings is growing continuously. The market for organic products is also growing very rapidly, not only in Europe, North America and Japan, where the largest markets are to be found, but also in many emerging economies in transition. In India, an organic movement is now emerging on different levels i.e. producer groups, trainers and advisors, certification bodies and processors and traders.

Abstract

Protected cultivation technology in black pepper and cardamom offers distinct advantages over conventional farming. Production of quality planting materials irrespective of the season was made possible. Such propagating materials can be well maintained under polyhouse, irrespective of the seasons and can be used judiciously for replanting/ gap filling. In this era of climate change, protected cultivation assumes significance. In black pepper and cardamom, rapid multiplication techniques of planting materials were made possible. A novel idea of growing pepper, different from conventional system as “bush” that can be grown under potted and field conditions were also developed. Nutrition and water management studies could be undertaken with precision. In cardamom, quality planting material production and high quality capsule production are made possible all throughout the year by the adoption of protected cultivation. For optimizing production, prescriptions of fertilizers, using DRIS norms were developed for black pepper and cardamom based on critical soil and foliar nutrient concentrations. Typical deficiency symptoms of major and micro nutrients on black pepper were characterized to rectify the deficiency. Technology for propagation and cultivation of bush pepper in pots, under protected cultivation was also developed and popularized. Technology for using organic manures, non edible oil cakes, biofertilizers towards production of high quality zero defect black pepper and cardamom was also developed and popularized.

Abstract

The objectives of the study is to help to create self-employment and provide proper information for different conventional milk based products. Traditional dairy foods have always played a crucial role in preservation of precious milk nutrients and promotion of its use among masses. The demand for milk and milk products is increasing with increasing of world's population. To meet these needs, high-end technology is needed for emerging the capability of milk production and preserving it by producing high quality milk products. The dairy industry is highly localized owing to perishable nature of milk products. Approximately 50% of the total milk produced in India has been projected to be processed into a variety of conventional milk products, such as khoa, chhena, paneer, dahi, ghee, kalakand and a wide range of sweets in rural areas mostly by the rural citizens. Therefore, setting up a milk-based food production system and updating conventional technologies to manage milk-based products on a commercial scale is very important.

Introduction

A planer machine is a commercial machine tool hired for transforming the metal blocks or metal workpiece into the desired calculated shapes by generating the flat surfaces on a workpiece. Similar to a shaper machine, a planer machine is used for forming flat surfaces on the work piece using the single-point cutting tool.Planer machines are generally hired for operation on the larger workpiece or metal structure (blocks) that cannot be achieved by the shaper machine. They generally have larger beds and larger reciprocating movements covering a greater working length and surface area as compared to shaper machines.

Introduction

Measurement of pH of a solution and preparation of different types/strength of buffers are common practices in a laboratory, particularly in the Biochemistry and Molecular Biology laboratories. Therefore, in this chapter you will be acquainted with the procedures of measuring pH of a solution as well as preparation of some of the commonly used buffers in a laboratory.

Potential or Power of Hydrogen Ion (pH)

Measurement of pH of a solution is measuring the molar concentration of hydrogen ion [H+] in the solution, which is an indication of the acidity or basicity of the solution. The symbol pH stands for “power of hydrogen” and numerical value for pH is just the negative logarithm of the molar concentration of hydrogen ions [H+]. The ionic product of water (Kw ) is the basis for the pH scale. The total hydrogen ion concentration from all the sources and it can be experimentally measured.

The pH scale designates the concentration of H+ (and thus of OH−) in an aqueous solution, which ranges between 1.0 M H+ and 1.0 M OH−. The term pH is defined by the expression

Thus, the ionic product of water makes it possible to calculate the concentration of H+, with given concentration of OH−, and vice versa. The value of 7 for pH of a neutral solution is not an arbitrarily chosen figure; it is derived from the absolute value of the ionic product of water. A solution having pH greater than 7 is basic, and the concentration of OH− is greater than that of H+. A solution having a pH less than 7 is acidic.

Introduction

For upliftment of the Indian economy agriculture plays an important role as it has contributed immensely. Nearly, three quarters of India’s family depend on rural incomes. Majority of India’s poor live in rural areas. Most people depend upon the crops, vegetables, fruits grown by these rural population. India’s food security is depended upon the inputs made by the farmers which has been a reason for increasing food insecurity in India. To meet with this accelerated pace a productive, competitive, diversified and sustainable agriculture sector needs to be introduced (The World Bank, 2012).

India being a global agricultural powerhouse, is the world’s largest producer of millet, pulses and spices and also has the largest cattle herd in the world, India also produces largest amount of wheat, rice and cotton. Agriculture is a part of India’s culture and tradition. In India, the culture, tradition and festivals are in a way related to different crops grown by the farmers. Along with this agriculture is deeply rooted with the community lifestyle in India. The community freely share their knowledge related to growing, sowing and harvesting of crops, they also distribute or share the produced crops among each other freely (OECD, 2018).

Onion growth, bulb initiation, yield, quality and storage life are strongly influenced by temperature, photoperiod, soil, moisture and crop establishment. Different cultivars require specific day lengths and temperature ranges, making regional variety selection and planting schedules essential. This chapter explains the environmental requirements of onion and the consequences of unsuitable conditions, including premature bolting, double bulbs, poor development and disease susceptibility. It examines soil preparation, planting geometry, direct seeding, transplanting and precision establishment. Modern approaches—including sensor-based environmental monitoring, Internet of Things systems, predictive modelling, precision seeding and machine-learning-supported input management—are presented as tools for improving uniformity, resource efficiency and climate adaptability.

Land and water resources are central to agriculture and rural development, and are intrinsically linked to global challenges of food insecurity, land degradation , poverty, climate change adaptation and mitigation that affect the livelihoods of millions of rural people across the world. Current projections indicate that world population will increase from present figure of 6.9 billion to 9.1 billion in 2050. As a result, the world food demand will increase. Since, both land and water resources, the basis of our food production, are finite and already under heavy stress, so future agricultural production will need to be more productive and more sustainable at the same time. The largest contribution to increases in agricultural output will most likely come from intensification of production on existing agricultural land. This will require widespread adoption of sustainable land management practices, and more efficient use of irrigation water through enhanced flexibility, reliability and timing of irrigation water delivery. The prevailing patterns of agricultural production needs to be critically reviewed.

Q.1 If the sampling units of the population are of heterogeneous nature then stratified random sampling scheme is suitable for sample survey to be conducted.

Q.2 In stratatified random sampling scheme, the strata are homogeneous within themselves but heterogeneous between themselves.

6.1 Introduction

Plum is one of the important and widely cultivated fruit crops of temperate regions of the world. It occupies a unique position amongst the stone fruits in world fruit production and ranks next to peaches in economic importance. Plums are the most taxonomically diverse stone fruits which belongs to genus Prunus of sub-family Prunoideae and family Rosaceae (Potter et al., 2007). There are about 42 species of plum but the cultivated plums are derived from two species namely Prunus domestica (European plum) and Prunus salicina (Japanese plum). The Japanese plums are widely grown in the country whereas the European plums are grown only on a limited scale. The European plums are most often produced for the dried fruit market particularly in France and California, where it is called prune and dried plum, respectively. In the recent past some prunes have been introduced for fresh market in Himachal Pradesh. These prunes are sold fresh like plums and have become quite popular.

Introduction
Gastrulation is a vital stage in the development of multicellular animals because it establishes the basic body plan, including the primary body axes (dorsal/ventral axis and the cranial/caudal axis) and prepares the embryo for organ formation. The process of cleavage leads to formation of blastula which is followed by gastrulation. The blastula consists of inner cell mass (Cell mass made up of darker blastomere and present at animal pole which is going to form embryo proper) and trophoblast (Cells made up of clear cells and arranged periphery near to Zona pellucid). The morphogenic changes occur during gastrulation is the formation of three germ layers. Gastrulation is the process in which single- layered blastula is converted into a trilaminar structure consisting of an outer ectodermal, a middle mesodermal and an inner endodermal layer and occupy their characteristic position in embryo. They will be give rise to different organs and extra embryonic membranes. The gastrulation is an important step of cell differentiation.
Gastrulation in Mammals
The process of gastrulation is variable among different domestic animals. It takes place in the uterus when the blastocyst is floating in the uterine fluid. After the degeneration of zona – pellucida, the cells located in the ventral margin of the inner cell mass separate out and extended ventrally along the trophoblast layer. Due to further proliferation, splitting (delaminate) and migration of cells from the inner cell mass, form a complete cellular lining on the inner site of trophoblast. This newly formed layer is called endoderm corresponds to the hypoblast of chick blastoderm. The remaining cells of the inner cell mass correspond to the epiblast of chick blastoderm. With formation of endoderm the blastocoel is divided into 2 cavities. The portion enclosed within endoderm is called primitive gut and area between endoderm and trophoblast layer is extra embryonic coelom. During this time trophoblast cells covering the inner cell mass degenerate and compact inner cell mass exposed and it is called as embryonic disc The embryonic disc occupies a position at the animal pole. Note: The development of the germ layers in mammals closely resembles that of birds with the formation of the primitive streak and primitive node.7

Introduction

Water is the driver of life/ liquid of lift or elixir of life for flora and fauna. It plays an important role in plant as it constitutes about 35-95% part of plant. Water is a mode of transportation of nutrients from roots to shoots and vice-versa, a thermal regulator of temperature inside the plants, source of hydrogen for the reaction of CO₂ for photosynthesis and is essential for maintaining turgidity and servility of plants. Water is required for agriculture as well as for other sectors (domestic, industries, etc) and the demand of water is increasing alarmingly.  Presently agriculture consumes over 80 per cent of total water consumption in India. The country is endowed with many perennial and seasonal rivers. The river, low ever 71 per cent of water resources is concentrated in 36 % of the geographical at area. Water resource of India, population in per capita water ability and estimates of water needs are given below.

Abstract 

The district Murshidabad lies within the Younger Deltaic Plain and the Bhagirathi Recent Surface has been considered as the severe flood affected district of West Bengal state, India. Murshidabad is highlighted one in terms of occurrence of flood due to its typical geographic location and diverse geomorphological characteristics. The district witnessed frequent floods because of high intensity of rain fall in the basin area of Bhairavi-Jalangi-sealmari rivers. Inflow of flood water from Ganga-Padma in high spate condition further aggravates the congestion of drainage. Lack of proper drainage is also responsible for flood in the upstream side in the western part as well as beyond the Berhampur town. Flood management may be undertaken through physical and socio-economic measures, which includes the scientific control of reservoirs; construction of new barrages, improvement of river channels, removal of human encroachment along river side, timely flood warning and forecasting, preparedness of essential services along with proper flood plain planning are indispensable. Addressing of socio-economic problems may help to combat the flood situation in an effective way.

Marketing management refers to distribution of the firm’s product or service to the customers in order to satisfy their needs and to accomplish the firm’s objectives.

Marketing includes developing the product or service, pricing, distribution, advertisement, merchandising, doing personal selling, promoting and directing sales and service to customers.

Marketing is an essential function because unless the firm has a market, or can develop a market for its product or service, other functions of staffing, producing and financing are futile. Marketing functions are schematically given below :

Introduction

Since beginning of this century genetic diversity of agricultural crop has been lost due to several reasons (Marla, 2012). Genetic erosion is caused by human intervention, mono culture, green revolution especially due to commercialization of plant breeding. So there is urgent need to collect, conserve plant genetic & genomic resource for further use.

A seed bank stores seeds to preserve genetic diversity. There are many reasons to store seeds. One reason is to have on-hand the genes that plant breeders need to increase yield, disease resistance, drought tolerance, nutritional quality, etc. of plants used in agriculture (i.e., crops or domesticated species). Another reason is to forestall loss of genetic diversity in rare or imperiled plant species in an effort to conserve biodiversity ex situ and in situ. Many plants that were used centuries ago by humans are used less frequently now and seed banks offer a way to preserve that historical and cultural value. Collections of seeds stored at constant low temperature and moisture guard against loss of genetic resources that are otherwise maintained in situ or in field collections. These alternative ‘living’ collections can be damaged by natural disasters, outbreaks of disease or war. Seed banks are considered seed libraries and contain valuable information about evolved strategies to combat plant stress or produce novel products. The work of seed banks spans decades and even centuries. Most seed banks are publicly funded and seeds are usually available for research that benefits the public.