eChapters

Introduction

Robert Brown discovered the nucleus in some plant cells in 1831. After analyzing tissues from a range of animals and plants, T. Schwann (1839) declared, “All living organisms are composed of cells.”

The fundamental elements of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

The simplest cells, called prokaryotic cells, have a straightforward structural arrangement. There is only one membrane system in it. They contain rickettsia, spirochete, mycoplasma, virus, blue-green algae, and bacteriablue-green algae, or cyanobacteria are the largest and most intricate prokaryotes, where higher plant photosynthesis occurs and have changed throughout time.

Prokaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells range in size from 1 to 10 µm. They take place in a range of formats. A bacterial cell is made up of three basic parts:

I. External layer: It is composed of the inner cell or plasma membrane, middle cell wall and outer slimy capsule.

a. Cell membrane: The thin, flexible membrane of the cell, composed of proteins and lipids, regulates the flow of chemicals throughout the cell. It carries respiratory enzymes for reactions that release energy. Respiratory enzymes are found in mesosomes, which are folded regions of the plasma membrane that are compared to the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells. Similarly, the pigments and enzyme molecules found in photosynthetic cells are linked to the in-folds of the plasma membrane known as photosynthetic lamella, which is responsible for absorbing light and converting it into chemical energy.

b. The cell wall: It is the non-living, semi-rigid layer that encloses the cell membrane, with a thickness that varies from 1.5 to 100 µm. It is chemically made up of peptidoglycans. Certain bacteria, such as mycoplasma, don’t have cell walls.

Glycolysis involves a series of reactions to extract energy from glucose to
release two molecules with three carbons called pyruvate. The process is not
dependent on oxygen but can occur under aerobic and anaerobic conditions,
releasing different end products. Under aerobic conditions, the pyruvate formed
is then oxidized in the mitochondria to CO2 and H2O. The energy released in
glycolysis is in the form of ATP (High Energy Bond). All the reaction steps
occur in the cytoplasm, as it is the extramitochondrial pathway. In anaerobic
conditions and the absence of mitochondria (RBC), the end product of
glycolysis is lactic acid.
The net reaction of Glycolysis (anaerobic) may be summarized as under
Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi → 2 Lactate + 2ATP
7.1 Steps in EMP Cycle or Glycolytic Pathway
Table 7.1: Steps and enzymes of glycolysis or EMP cycle.

Introduction
Stem cells are the undifferentiated cells of the body which have inherent capacity to differentiate and proliferate into any cell type under programmed command. These cells perpetuate themselves through self-renewal by programmed pathways to give rise to new adult cells (Remya et al., 2014). According to plasticity, the stem cells are categorised into totipotent, pluripotent, multipotent and unipotent. Broadly they can also be classified as embryonic stem cells and adult somatic stem cells. Totipotent stem cells are those which can give rise to all types of cells along with placental membranes whereas pluripotent stem cells give rise to all cell types except placental membranes. The multipotent set of stem cells can give rise to more than one cell type and unipotent ones can differentiate into only one type of cells. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), which fall under the multipotent stem cells category, have the multilineage potential to differentiate into many mesenchymal lineages like osteocytes, chondrocytes, adipocytes etc. (Kim et. al., 2013). They can be easily isolated from the adipose tissues, bone marrows, muscles, liver, umbilical cords, lungs etc. and can be easily proliferated in vitro. MSCs were first identified from the bone marrow in a pioneering study by Fredenstein et al (1976) who isolated the bone forming progenitor cells from rat bone marrow. Although the MSCs represent very small fraction of 0.001-0.01% of total nucleated marrow cells, they can be isolated and differentiated into multiple lineages under defined culture conditions. They are generally isolated from iliac crest, tibial and femoral marrow compartments along with thoracic and lumbar spine in large animals. Stem cells have been used for cellular therapy and tissue engineering for quite a period of time owing to their regeneration potential. They are unspecialized cells with the ability to renew themselves for long periods without significant changes in their general properties. These cells under the influence of appropriate signals can differentiate into specialized cells with a phenotype distinct from that of the precursor (Kim et al., 2013). It may be that stem

The purpose of PCA 1960 is to protect animals from being subjected to unnecessary pain or suffering. This at consists of 6 chapters covering 41 sections. This has been amended in 1982. The sections under each chapter have been concised for easy understanding. This provides only baseline information about the act.

Introduction

Seed spices have prominent place in India’s national economy because of their very high domestic consumption and growing demand for export. This group of spices, being consisting of mostly annual crops, is grown extensively in rotation with food and cash crops and also as inter crops under rain fed as well as irrigated conditions.

There are about 20 seed spice crops grown in India. Out of which nine are important in terms of production and export. The most important ones are coriander, cumin, fennel and fenugreek (major seed spices) and ajowain, aniseed, black cumin, celery and dill (minor seed spice crops). Although these crops are grown all over India but Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh are the main seed spice growing states.

Abstract

Sundarban is the largest mangrove wetland ecosystems in the world. This World Heritage site along the Bay of Bengal has evolved over the millennia through natural deposition of upstream sediments accompanied by intertidal segregation. Indian part of Sundarbans is estimated to be about 4,110 square kilometres of which about 1,700 square kilometres is occupied by water bodies in the form of river, canals and creeks of width varying from a few metres to several kilometres, which together form the complex ecosystem of this Ganges delta.. Rivers in the Sundarbans are confluence points of salt water and freshwater. Environmental crisis is caused by severe cyclones sea level rise and storm surge followed by coastal erosion, flood and earthquake phenomenon. River water is saline. Shallow aquifer is brackish/ saline, which is not suitable for drinking. Fresh potable ground water is occurring in deeper aquifer, the exploitation of which is not cost-effective. Sundarbans houses around 500 different species of mammals, fish, bird and reptiles and it is the largest habitat of royal Bengal tigers. Conservation of flora and fauna in the typical ecosystem of Sundarbans in India with emphasis on judicious use of ground water resources along with retrospection of historical trend and future sustainable management strategies is a pre-requisite.

Artificial insemination Technology is a high cost and labour intensive technique in sheep and In India, sheep are reared by economically weaker sections of the society and any advanced technique may take much time to reach their flocks.  Considerably more research work has been done in AI with sheep than with goats. However, the equipment and techniques are very similar for the two species. Goat semen may be stored and frozen more successfully than ram semen.

Seeds are having a ability to survive and start a new generation when favourable conditions exists. However like other form of life, they cannot retain their viability indefinitely and eventually deteriorate and die. To retain viability and germination it is important to store in proper storage. Seeds harvested may not be useful for packaging thus making it to store for a period till the need for packaging arises. Seed storage is very critical task of seed processing. The success of seed processing is determined by safe storage. Since the vegetable seeds are expensive need modern techniques of storage. Based on the seed shelf life or longevity vegetable seeds can be divided into two types:

Orthodox Seeds : Orthodox seeds are long-lived seeds. They can be successfully dried to moisture contents as low as 5% without injury and are able to tolerate freezing temperatures. Most orthodox seeds come from annual temperate species adapted to open fields. At physiological maturity they contain moisture content of 30 – 50%. Most of the vegetable seeds are orthodox and hence there is lot of scope for proper storage. E.g-Tomato (6.0 %) and Peppers (7.0%

Recalcitrant Seeds : They are short - lived seeds, which cannot be dried to moisture contents below 30% without injury and are unable to tolerate freezing. They are difficult to ore successfully because of their high moisture content encourages microbial contamination and results in more rapid seed deterioration. Storage of these seeds at subzero temperatures causes the formation of ice crystals, which disrupts cell membranes and causes freezing injury. These seeds are from perennial trees in the mois t tropics such as coconut, coffee, cacao, citrus etc. These seeds mature and exists in their fruits and are covered with fleshy or juicy ariloid layers and impermeable testa. At physiological maturity they contain more moisture content (50- 70%) than orthodox seeds, even though their embryos are only about 15 % of the size of an orthodox seed embryo. In general recalcitrant seeds never go into dormancy but instead continue their development and progress towards germination.

Introduction

Over the past decades, agriculture sector played a crucial role in enhancing the economic growth of India, and will continue so in future. It employs 55% of the workforce, thereby contributing to 17.1% of the country’s Gross Value Added (GVA) for the year 2017-18 (MoA & FW, 2019). Agricultural production in India grew at an average of 3.6% annually since 2011, thanks to the policy decisions on inputs including improved fertilizer delivery systems and high yielding varieties. Release of improved varieties in cereals, pulses, fruits, vegetables and ornamental flowers as well as high-yielding breeds in the livestock and fisheries sectors has increased the diversification. Availability of a range of nutrition rich food commodities played crucial role in reducing undernourished population from 24% in 1990-92 to 15% in 2014-16 (OECD, 2018, FAO statistics). India is currently the largest product export economy of the world. India is leading exporter of rice globally, amounting to 8.34 Mt in 2019, and currently holds >85% of global basmati rice exports. The country has shown massive resilience to very recent global outbreak of COVID-19, and managed to tackle the social and economic challenges with a spirit of self-reliance. The ‘Atma Nirbhar Bharat Abhiyan’ by Government of India with a special economic package of Rs 20 lakh crore to enable the resurgence of the economy through three mantras, ‘innovation, integrity and inclusion’ as suggested by none other than the Hon’ble Prime Minister of the country. It is therefore imperative that the agricultural sector too needs new initiatives to continue with the success, and realize the potential of self-reliance.

Introduction

Flowering plants (Angiosperms) are identified by their morphological characteristics like flower, fruit and seeds that help their taxonomic characterization into different species, genera, families and orders. The floral characters which are used for taxonomic characterization of plants include the type of inflorescences, perianth structure, floral symmetry, arrangement of floral leaves, type of androecium, stamens, gynoecium, carpel, ovule, etc. The type of fruit and seed also play important roles in taxonomic classification. In this chapter we will briefly discuss about various morphological features of flowering plants (in botanical terms) that are useful in taxonomy.

Nomenclature of Plant

Nomenclature of plant is the formal and scientific naming of plants. It is related to but distinct from taxonomy for grouping and classifying plants and provide botanical name.

The scientific/botanical nomenclature started with Species Plantarum by Carolus Linnaeus in 1753. Botanical nomenclature is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN), which replaces the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).

ICBN and ICN

International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, (ICBN) was adopted by the VIIth International Botanical Congress held in Stockholm, July1950. While the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) was adopted by the XVIIIth International Botanical Congress held in Melbourne, Australia in July 2011.

The response of any living cell to a xenobiotic (including antibacterial agent) is significantly affected by the prevailing local environmental conditions. In case of bacterial infection, it may include the presence of other microbes, no matter commensal or pathogenic, or biochemical alterations at that particular site of bacterial infection in host. All these host and bacterial factors play a critical role in the evolutionary responses of bacteria but usually go unconsidered while determining the microbial sensitivity to a particular antibiotic in a clinical setting. These also include the direct and indirect interspecies interactions that can affect the responses of individual bacterial species and surviving microbial communities to a particular antibiotic therapy. These interactions may significantly alter the qualitative and quantitative responses, potential phenotypic changes and the final trajectory of evolution of antimicrobial resistance. Due acknowledgement and plausible interpretation to these interactions may help to reduce the upsurge in AMR and its associated morbidity and fatality and pave path to more proficient clinical success.

The factors participating in drug- microbe interaction can be classified into two broad groups: host factors and microbial factors. The environmental milieu of the interaction is chiefly regulated by the gut microbiota with stressors causing deflections. The gastrointestinal bacteria amend host mental and physiological cadence via microbial metabolites such as butyrate, polyphenolic antioxidants, vitamins, and amines, affecting the overall ready perception and active rebuke to a stimulus. Lifestyle stressors such as fluctuating sleep and erratic eating patterns (western diet) disturb the host circadian system along with the gut microbiome. The overall impact is impaired detoxification (decreased conjugation of bile acids or increased production of hydrogen sulphide), substrate oxidation and energy regulation (reduced butyrate production) in the host affecting the overall health and productivity.

Introduction
Reproduction involves the intricate interplay of physiological processes to ensure the successful growth and development of the embryo and fetus. Three key processes— implantation, placentation, and the establishment of fetal circulation—are fundamental to a viable pregnancy. These stages ensure the fetus receives adequate nutrients, oxygen, and support for development. Below is a detailed elaboration of each process.
1. Implantation
Implantation is the process by which the blastocyst (a hollow structure formed in the early development of mammals) embeds itself into the uterine wall. It is the first critical step in establishing a pregnancy.
Phases of Implantation
1. Apposition: The blastocyst loosely attaches to the endometrium (the inner lining of the uterus).
2. Adhesion: The trophoblast cells (outer layer of the blastocyst) firmly attach to the uterine lining.
3. Invasion: The trophoblast differentiates into two layers: Cytotrophoblast: The inner cellular layer that serves as the proliferative zone. Syncytiotrophoblast: The outer multinucleated layer that invades the endometrium, facilitating deeper embedding.
Significance
Implantation typically occurs 6–10 days after fertilization.
It ensures the establishment of an early connection between the embryo and maternal blood supply.
Successful implantation depends on hormonal regulation, especially the roles of estrogen and progesterone, which prepare the endometrium to be receptive.

Transformation of data is useful when the assumptions required for analysis of variance are not adequately satisfied. Forestry experiments may produce observations showing skewness, unequal variances, non-normality, or departures from additivity. This chapter explains the need for transforming observations to an appropriate scale before statistical analysis. It discusses the characteristics of an ideal transformation, including stabilisation of variance, improvement of normality, efficient estimation of means, and achievement of linear and additive effects. Various transformation techniques used in forestry experimental analysis are introduced with suitable examples. The chapter emphasizes that appropriate transformation can improve the validity, sensitivity, and interpretability of statistical tests.

A cell culture laboratory should allow the sterile handling of cultured cells with no or minimum level of contamination. The growth of bacteria and fungi is very high and no level of contamination can be allowed in animal cell culture. However, it is impractical to design a laboratory free from potentially contaminated microorganism. Further, it is possible to establish a laboratory with minimal risk of contamination. Several points should be taken into consideration while designing a new cell culture laboratory.

INTRODUCTION

Biological control involves the suppression of pests/organisms with other organisms.  It is an eco-friendly method for management of plant pathogens which can be done exploiting the fungi (Ampelomyces, Trichoderma, Coniothyrium, Candida etc.) or bacteria (Agrobacterium, Bacillus, Pseudomonas and Streptomyces) from rhizosphere,  as well as phylloplane and endophytes (Jayaraman and Verma, 2002). The rhizosphere microfloras are predominantly composed of gram negative pseudomonads.  The fluorescent pseudomonads constitute a large proportion of the rhizosphere microflora presumably due to their nutritional variability being able to use a large number of organic substances (Stolp and Gadkari, 1981). However earlier workers used fluorescent pseudomonads extensively they now prefer Bacillus sp. due to their spore forming ability and heat tolerance which make its formulation easier.

Introduction

We come across a variety of chemicals every day in a laboratory. While some of them are relatively safer, others are extremely hazardous. Thus, it is very important to know the potential hazards that can be caused by the chemicals present in the laboratory and the safety measures needed to be followed to avoid the hazards. Additionally, we should also be aware of the steps necessary to be taken on such hazardous situations. According to IUPAC, a hazardous chemical mean the chemical which has the potential to cause damage in various ways. In a laboratory, there are chemicals that might be irritant, carcinogen, respiratory fibrogen, systemic poison, asphyxiant, flammable, etc. which have the potential to cause hazard to the workers or environment. Therefore, it is important to use appropriate procedure to reduce the risk and protect the health/safety of laboratory personnel, the public and the environment.

Types of Hazards Associated with Chemicals

Chemical hazards: The hazards caused by chemicals can be broadly classified into three categories.

1. Health hazard: This is also known as toxic effects of chemical. The risk associated with a chemical in laboratory depends on the extent of exposure and the inherent toxicity of the chemical. Many chemical reactions form the product that might be much more toxic than the reacting chemicals. For example, inadvertent mixing of formaldehyde (a common tissue fixative) and hydrogen chloride results in the generation of bis(chloromethyl) ether, a potent human carcinogen. For most of the chemicals, the route of exposure (through skin, eyes, gastrointestinal tract, or respiratory tract) is more important (Figure 17.1) that must be considered during risk assessment.

1.     Centrifuge
    
2.     Spectrophotometer
    
3.     Microscope

Abstract

Modern agriculture largely depends on use of high cost inputs and energy intensive farm machinery. Worlds increasing population and continuously deteriorating soil fertility has alarmed agriculture system to look for some safe alternatives. Organic manures are rich source ofnutrients and humans, therefore crop residue recycling by composting is a best alternate of modern high cost input based agriculture. Compost is an aerobically decomposed organic matter .Bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes algae and protozoa are involved in the process of composting and are found throughout the natural environment. The composting material warms up due to microbial activity and it’s temperature becomes up to 160 ⁰F active stage of microbial activity . There are four types of compositing i.e. Windrow composting, Aerated static pile composting, In-Vessel composting and Vermi-composting. The C: N ratio, aeration, temperature and moisture are major factors affecting composting process. Major advantages of composting are: Aggregate formation, Reduction in bulk density, Increase in hydraulic conductivity, Reduction in loss of soil moisture, Increase in organic carbon content and pH of soil.