eBook Chapters

7.1. Introduction

Cultivation of crop is one of the most important aspects on which the success of a greenhouse depends. Principally it is similar to that of open field cultivation; but it is a completely different proposition in comparison. In greenhouse it needs (1) high precision technology, (2) special management, and (3) high qualityinputs. A special crop husbandry is extremely necessary, integrating all these three aspects, for successful greenhouse cultivation.

Why special crop husbandry? – Ancestors of each and every crop of modern time once grew out of its own in wild, without any human intervention. Gradually it has been domesticated or brought under cultivation by progressive alteration of its natural growing and reproduction process. Even the genetic nature also altered gradually. Till recent past these development of domestication process has been restricted principally on reproduction, planting, nutrient supply, water supply, and plant protection aspects. Interestingly most of these aspects are still very much supplementary in nature, as a good percent of it is still dependent on nature and its growing system.Actually, we cannot confer any significant change, physically or genetically, in their adaptation against the natural elements like rain, sunlight, temperature, humidity, gas supply, etc. However, we try our level best with a compromising note on local climate.

Hence there is ample scope to go for complete alteration of their growing habit/ practices in relation to each and every aspect of the climatic elements. It is a very difficult job, because, for a small change in any individual aspect of plant growth, all the other aspects are affected. Thus, one has to make a proper and holistic balance of alteration of all the growth aspects for each and every individual domesticated plant, we call as crop.

Landscape Gardening

Landscape gardening is an aesthetic branch of Horticulture which deals with planting of ornamental plants in such a way that it creates a picturesque effect. According to Chambers’ dictionary, the definition of landscape is the appearance of that portion of land which the eye can view at once and landscape gardening is the art of laying grounds so as to produce the effect of a picturesque landscape. Landscape gardening can be defined as the decoration of a tract of land with plants and other garden materials so as to produce a picturesque and naturalistic effect in a limited space. According to Bailey, Landscape gardening is the application of garden forms, methods and materials to the improvements of the landscape and the landscape in this connection is any area large or small on which it is desirable to develop a view or design. So landscape may or may not include plants.

Landscape gardening can also be defined as the beautification of a tract of land having a house or other object of interest on it. It is done with a view to create a natural scene by the planting of lawn, trees and shrubs. Landscape gardening is both an art and science of the establishment of a ground in such a way that it gives an effect of a natural landscape. It can be also defined as the imitation of nature in the garden. It can also be defined as improving of total living environment for the people. In light of all the foregoing definition landscape gardening can be defined more appropriately as art of creating gardens, parks and other green areas.

Landscape design seeks to create balance between living and natural environments in order to derive the greatest use and enjoyment from outdoor space. A landscape to a landscape designer is like a slab of marble to a sculptor or the insides of a home to an interior decorator; a landscape is the canvass on which the landscape designer crafts his or her masterpiece. Since the landscape gardening is the making pictures on the ground with plant and other material, landscape designer should be proficient in art, ornamental gardening, ecology and physiology. He should be an architect and engineer to appreciate the relationship between plant form, colours and buildings.

SUMMARY

In the context of increasing population pressure, diminishing per capita land holding, and employment crisis, livelihood security of Indian rural population has become important concern today. The livelihood of the people is dynamic, diverse and complex in nature. The livelihood comprises the people themselves, the assets they posses, the activities they do and the output they gain from their activities. According to the need, availability of the resources and capacity, people used to select their livelihood strategies like agricultural intensification, livelihood diversification or they migrate to the other places to find alternative livelihoods.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a molecule made up of pairs of building blocks called nucleotides. The four kinds of nucleotides that make up DNA are adenine (abbreviated as the single letter A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). The DNA molecule has the shape of two intertwined spirals, referred to as a double helix. DNA is packaged into chromosomes that are located within the nucleus of all cells. These chromosomes are the same in every cell of an organism and together make up the organism’s genetic information, its genome. Chromosomes contain stretches of DNA called genes that code for amino acids that make proteins. It is the proteins that are the foundation of life for all organisms. The interaction and structure of proteins determine the visible characteristics or phenotype of an organism, while the genetic makeup of an organism is called its genotype.

The sequence of nucleotides that make up a gene can differ among individuals. The different forms of a gene are called alleles. The alleles are the result of nucleotide differences in a gene that affect an amino acid sequence of a protein. This can result in a change, addition, or deletion of a protein that can affect the phenotype.

Introduction

Electrical Engineering generally uses a consistent, structured approach to the solving of various practical problems. An acceptable problem-solving approach and method can be defined, although variations can be seen in specific problems. Problems need to be approached methodically, applying an algorithm by which engineer arrives at an acceptable solution.

Problem-Solving Process in Engineering: (i) Define the engineering problem (ii) Create a mathematical model (iii) Develop a computational method for solving the problem (iv) Implement the computational method (v) Test and assess the solution.

A. Construction, Use and Care of Light Microscope
Introduction
Microorganism are invisible to naked eyes, hence their detailed study requires a microscope. A microscope can be defined as an optical instrument consisting of a lens or a combination of lenses for getting enlarged or magnified images of minute objects. A simple microscope is essentially an ordinary magnifying lens held on an adjustable stand. Usually it gives magnification up to 20 times the size of the object. A compound microscope consists of two separate lens system – the objective and the eye piece. It gives much greater magnification (100-1500 times) than a simple microscope and is, therefore useful for viewing and examining very minute objects like protozoa, bacteria, yeast, mold and algae which cannot be seen with naked eyes.
The objective of this exercise is to familiarize the students with construction and the use of compound light microscope.
1. Construction of Microscope
A microscope contrite various parts in which principle parts are described below:
i) Frame work: All microscopes have a basic frame structure which includes the arm and base. All other parts are attached to this framework and the base support the microscope.
ii) Stage: It is a horizontal platform that supports the microscopic slide. It has a mechanical stage, which is used for holding and moving the slide around on the stage.

Only a very brief mention of various basic aspects of plant nutrition is given here. Associates wanting to know more details should refer to any one of the standard Plant Nutrition publication (PRINCIPLES OF PLANT NUTRITION by K. Mengel and E.A. Kirkby).

Increased production of food and cash crops is the need of our times; as land and irrigation water are limited and beyond any means of expansion. Crop yields per unit input should increase. Crop yield under natural production systems is limited by the availability of nutrients in the soil. Unless the supply of nutrients can be enhanced yields cannot be high.

15.1 Law of Mass Action

Gulberg and Waage, the two Norwegian chemists in the year 1864 stated the law of mass action in this form: ‘The velocity of any chemical reaction at any instant at a given temperature is proportional to the active mass of each of the reactants at that instant present in the system, the active mass in a homogeneous system is defined as the number of gram molecule of the substance present per unit volume i.e., the molar volume’.

8.1. Law of Mass Action

Gulberg and Waage, the two Norwegian chemists in the year 1864 stated the law of mass action in this form: ‘The velocity of any chemical reaction at any instant at a given temperature is proportional to the active mass of each of the reactants at that instant present in the system, the active mass in a homogeneous system is defined as the number of gram molecule of the substance present per unit volume i.e., the molar volume’.

Mathematical Formulation of the Law of Mass Action

Let us take a simple case of a reversible reaction at constant temperature represented by the equation:

Traditionally, remote sensing encompasses a wide array of technologies and methods used to gather information about objects, areas, or phenomena without direct physical contact. This includes devices like seismographs, fathometers, radar systems, and more. These tools enable us to observe and measure various aspects of the environment from a distance.

However, in contemporary contexts, when we talk about remote sensing in a more specialized sense, we often refer to the use of satellite and aerial-based systems to capture and analyze electromagnetic radiation reflected or emitted from the Earth's surface. This form of remote sensing has become incredibly valuable in fields such as environmental monitoring, urban planning, agriculture, forestry, and disaster management, among others.

Modern remote sensing techniques leverage sensors capable of detecting specific wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, such as visible light, infrared, and microwave radiation. By analyzing the patterns and intensity of this radiation, researchers can derive valuable information about the Earth's surface features, including vegetation cover, soil moisture, land use, and changes over time.

In statistics, sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole population. Two advantages of sampling are that the cost is lower and data collection is faster than measuring the entire population. Each observation measures one or more properties (such as weight, location, colour) of observable bodies distinguished as independent objects or individuals. In survey sampling, weights can be applied to the data to adjust for the sample design, particularly stratified sampling. Results from probability theory and statistical theory are employed to guide the practice. In business and medical research, sampling is widely used for gathering information about a population. Acceptance sampling is used to determine if a production lot of material meets the governing specifications.

The sampling process comprises several stages

• Defining the population of concern

• Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible to measure

• Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from the frame

• Determining the sample size

• Implementing the sampling plan

• Sampling and data collecting

Sensory evaluation is a scientific method of evaluating foods including meat products that applies principles of experimental design and statistical analysis through the use of human senses like sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing. It is also called organoleptic evaluation in which we measure, analyse and interpret reactions to those characteristics of materials as they are perceived by the human senses. These attributes can be perceived well by the human sense organs as compared to instruments available for this purpose. It is a fact that no single instrument is able to assess all the attributes of meat products. With the help of these instruments we can very well evaluate the single quality attribute of meat product i.e. shear force instrument or penetrometer is good for knowing the texture and refractometer is for colour interpretation.

M. D. SURANAGI

Software is a tool that allows the hardware to process and manipulate data. It is essentially a list of commands; therefore it is not something you can touch. Software is stored in the different drives in a computer. Software, like data, can be stored and shared through disks. Unlike hardware, software is not permanent. It can be added, removed, and changed very easily. Individual software pieces are normally called programs. There are different types of programs. The three major categories of software are System software, Application software and Programming software.

• System software like device drivers and utilities enables the application software to interact with the computer hardware.
• Programming software like compilers, debuggers and interpreters provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer programs.
• Application software is what most users commonly use to interact with their computers and carry out various daily tasks.

Soil sampling is an integral and essential component of soil fertility evaluation and nutrient management research. The effectiveness of soil sampling is a prerequisite for soil testing to achieve its goals for efficient nutrient management and plant nutrition for improved yield and quality. The underlying basis for soil sampling is that a soil sample taken represents the “population” which may be a plot, field or a watershed. It further implies that nutrient status of the representative soil sample(s) determined in a laboratory would reflect nutrient status of a plot, field or watershed and is of interest for correcting nutrient disorders in the field or watershed.

The most important factor that influences the effectiveness of soil sampling is soil heterogeneity. However, in a relatively homogenous group of fields or plots, a small number of samples may be sufficient to represent the population to a more heterogenous group of fields that would require more number of samples to represent the soil population. Whenever, soil samples to be taken in field following points needs to be kept in mind.

A. Principles of spices breeding
Plant breeding is a science-based technique aimed at improving the genetic makeup of plants to develop desirable traits such as increased yield, resistance to diseases and pests, improved quality, and adaptability to various environmental conditions. When applied to spices, these principles are adapted to meet the unique characteristics and challenges of spice crops.
A.1. Understanding the breeding objectives
• Yield improvement: Increasing the yield of spices like black pepper, ginger, and turmeric is a primary goal. This involves selecting varieties that produce more berries, rhizomes, or seeds.
• Quality enhancement: For spices like vanilla, cinnamon, and saffron, the focus is on enhancing the quality of the product, such as increasing vanillin content, oil content, or curcumin levels.
• Disease and pest resistance: Developing resistant varieties is crucial for spices prone to specific diseases, like black pepper’s vulnerability to foot rot or large cardamom’s susceptibility to fungal diseases.
• Adaptation to environmental conditions: Breeding efforts often aim to produce varieties that can thrive in specific climates, such as the cool, shaded forests required for large cardamom or the arid conditions suitable for cumin.

Introduction

This chapter is intended to throw light on some statistical and econometric methods used for analysing time series data with specific emphasis on basic concepts related to time series analysis, co-integration techniques as well as forecasting techniques such as ARIMA model. Time series analysis is often helpful in revealing the broad patterns associated with longitudinal data, which in turn would aid in important economic and policy decisions. In fisheries sector too, economic variables such as market demand and supply, prices, etc. are of prime importance and often come in longitudinal format. There are a number of alternative methodologies available in the time series literature to determine relevant parameters pertaining to longitudinal data and the ensuing sections are set apart to delve deeper into this realm.

Some Key Concepts

Stationary Stochastic Process

A random or stochastic process is a collection of random variables ordered in time. A stochastic process is said to be stationary if its mean and variance are constant over time and the value of covariance between two time periods depend only on the distance or the gap between the two time periods and not the actual time at which the covariance is computed. In the time series literature, such a stochastic process is known as a weekly stationary or second order stationarity or covariance stationarity.

During recent years ultrasonography has become an indispensable diagnostic modality in human and veterinary medicine because of its non-invasive nature, providing visualization of internal organs, and quick results. Birth of ultrasound took place in 1794 when an Italian biologist Lazzaro Spallanzani discovered that bats used sound waves for navigation. Since then continuous developments and advancements in the technology have made the sonography a dependable and an easily accessible diagnostic modality.

Introduction

Solid waste management is a worldwide problem and it is becoming more and more complicated day by day due to rise in population, industrialization and changes in our life style. Large quantities of organic wastes are produced from agricultural production and farming systems which include animal manures, sewage biosolids, food wastes, and industrial organic wastes. Globally, these wastes have the potential of increasing soil and water pollution as because they are currently disposed of by land-spreading, incineration, or into landfills. As much as 50%-60% of the total wastes that are disposed into landfills are organic wastes. If these were turned into materials useful in farming system, there would be great savings in primary plant nutrients and metabolic energy.

Vermicomposting has been arising as an innovative eco-technology for the method by which compost or mixed manure of organic origin or conversion of various types of waste is prepared by the use of earthworms. It is a controlled degradation (non-thermophilic, boioxidative process) of the organic wastes for the consumption of earthworms, helps in the recycling of food wastes, reduces the waste bulk density and the final product may contain hormone-like substance which accelerates the plant growth. Vermicompost is humus like, finely granulated and stabilized material which can be used as a soil conditioner to reintegrate the organic matter to the agricultural soils. Industrial wastes remain largely unutilized and often cause environmental problems like ground and surface water pollution, foul odours, occupying vast land areas etc. Non-toxic and organic industrial wastes could be potential raw material for vermitechnology. In the last two decades, vermin-technology has been applied for the management of industrial wastes and sludges and to convert them into vermicompost for land restoration practices. The success of the process depends upon several process parameters like quality of raw material, pH, temperature, moisture, aeration etc., type of vermicomposting system and earthworm species used. Vermicomposting and vermiculture are two interlinked and interdependent processes where vermiculture can be done in the presence of decomposable waste organic matter

Elephants are the simple stomached animals and colon is associated with digestion, predominantly. Elephants are the herd animals (gregarious in nature) and belong to the matriarchal groups (Leader of herd is usually a cow elephant)

In the last chapter, we have broadly introduced the concept of tracer hydrology and also the concepts of isotopes as tracers, their characteristics and measurement techniques. In this chapter let us see the basis of application of each group of isotope tracers, injected and environmental.

What are the different groups of isotope tracers used in hydrology and how are they classified?

Genetic Basis of Heterosis

There are three theories to explain the genetic basis of heterosis: (1) dominance hypothesis, (2) over-dominance hypothesis and (3) epistasis.

Dominance Hypothesis

Davenport (1908) first proposed this hypothesis and he considered that heterosis is a consequence of action and interaction of favourable dominant genes brought together in a hybrid. Bruce, Keeble and Pellew explained it in 1910. This hypothesis suggests that at each locus the dominant allele have favourable effect, while recessive allele has unfavourable effect. In heterozygous state, deleterious effects of recessive alleles are masked by their dominant alleles. Thus, heterosis results from masking of harmful effects of recessive alleles by their dominant alleles. The harmful effects of recessive alleles, which becomes homozygous due to inbreeding. Therefore, according to dominance hypothesis, heterosis is not the result of heterozygosity; it is the result of prevention of expression of harmful recessive allele by their dominant alleles (Fig.1). In this hypothesis, there are two objections (i) the first objection relates to the failure in isolation of homozygous lines for all the dominant genes, and (ii) the second objection is directed at the symmetrical distribution in F₂. Both the objections are discussed below:

Individuality tells us what an animal seems to be; his pedigree tells us what he ought to be, but the performance of his progeny tells us what he is
Effectiveness of selection depends on ability to recognize those animals, which possess superior inheritance. Those superior animals must be mated together for the production of offspring. The aids available to estimate the breeding value of an animal is through the phenotype of an animal or its relatives.

ABSTRACT

Folivorous bats consume flowers and fruits, effecting seed dispersal and pollination. Adaptation of plants according to the type of pollinator is called pollination syndrome. Some of the adaptations of bat-pollinated syndromes are nocturnal anthesis

Bathua is an old plant that is also known as lamb’s quarters or cheel bhaji. Its scientific name is Chenopodium album. In India, the plant leaves are boiled and consumed like other green vegetables. Chenopodium is a weedy annual plant with a high growth rate. This is completely natural and a distinguishing feature of the plant. When the leaves mature, the powdery residue disappears. Look for younger leaves if eating raw. Otherwise, look for sturdy, robust leaves that aren’t wilted.

Botany and taxonomy Chenopodium album is a weedy annual plant belonging to the Chenopodium genus. 

1) Anthracnose
Diagnostic Symptoms
• All the above ground parts are affected. However, the characteristic symptoms appear on pods.
• On cotyledons, spots are sunken dark brown or black with pink spore mass.
• Seedling infection results in collapse of seedling.
• Spots on leaves appear on lower side and are black. Later these may also appear on upper surface. When the infection is severe, the affected plants wither off.
• Black, sunken, circular spots of varying sizes appear on pods with bright red, yellow or orange margins. The centre of these spots later turns grey or pink due to sporulation of the pathogen. The border of these spots appear raised (Fig.1).

Bearing: Bearing is connotation of flowering and fruiting.

Bearing habit: The position of f lower bud with respect to vegetative growth of the plant after the cessation of juvenility. Different fruit plants have different habits.

Depending upon position of fruit bud, fruit trees may be categorized as under:

1. Shoot flowering: Terminal flowering: Banana, Pineapple, Mango, Litchi, Avocado Lateral flowering: Coconut, Papaya, Guava, Orange, Ber, Passion fruit, Bread fruit
2. Stem /Branch bearing: It also known as caulifluorous bearing habit. In this habit, flower and fruit appear directly from the main stem or branch. Example: Jackfruit, Cocoa, Durian,
3. Spur bearing: It is a shot stubby shoot of more than one year age which bears fruit bud in many fruit plants. Example: Apple, Pear, Peach, Plum, Cherry, Grape, Apricot etc

Bearing

Bearing is connotation of flowering and fruiting. When a fruit tree flowers and fruits, it is said in bearing condition. Different fruits have different bearing habits, inflorescences, types of flower, mode and medium of pollination, pollen viability and all these account a lot for the bearing of fruit plants.

Bearing habit

If one observes a mango tree, he/she may find it does produce the fruits terminally on a shoot and it citrus he/she finds the fruits always produced laterally in the leaf axils. The manner or patter in which a plant produces its fruit is known as bearing habit or fruiting habit. Bearing habits are specific to the kind of plant. In determining the bearing habit of any plant three points are to be considered.

In nature, plantspecies flowers produce fruits and seeds and the primary objective is to reproduce them. Plant species those are unable to produce viable seeds, reproduce themselves by other means. With a common of these processes they vary in various aspects of flowering and fruiting. The variations may be due to their different growing habits, requirement of different environments, differences in their basic nature etc. Here we are going to discuss different types of bearing habits do exists in fruit crops.

Growth Habit

Growth is quantitative irreversible increase in the existing size of say plant or a shoot or simply a leaf etc. Fruit crops can be classified on the basis of their growth habits in two major classes. One is evergreen and second is deciduous. Evergreens include those plants which bear their leaves throughout the year. Examples are mango, litchi, guava and orange. Whereas, deciduous trees shed their leaves during a part of year (when weather is adverse i.e. during winter). Mostly temperate fruits belong to this category. The presence or absence of leaves makes very big difference in their physiology, their bearing season and pattern etc. These two categories also make a basic group to study them separately with respect to many aspects viz. source and sink relationships, pruning etc.

17.1 INTRODUCTION

Bearing habit indicates position of f lower bud with respect to vegetative growth of the plant after cessation of juvenility. Different fruit trees have different bearing habits. The knowledge of bearing habits will be of much importance for regulating the bearing of any plant by means of pruning. Terminal bearers are not normally pruned, whereas in case of lateral bearers pruning certainly increase the bearing, as it encourages the sprouting of lateral buds. Fruit trees may bear the fruits either terminally on a long or short growth, laterally on present or past season growth or adventitiously from any point on the trunk or root. The relative position of a fruit with reference to its potential bud giving rise to f lower or inf lorescence in the shoot is known as bearing habit. Knowledge on the bearing habit is a pre-requirement before performing pruning in any fruit crop (particularly in ber, guava, grape etc.). Proper understanding of bearing habits helps a lot in manipulating time and period of f lowering and fruiting which consequently inf luence harvesting and yield of better-quality fruits.

In general, plants show two distinctive phases; i.e. vegetative growth and reproductive growth. The primary objective of plant species is to reproduce themselves through the reproductive phase. However, some of the plant species do not produce viable seeds, but reproduce themselves in nature by other means. Flowering and fruiting habits vary with plant species and are governed by the kind of plant species and its growth habit, environment etc. In general, flowering and fruiting habits are known as bearing habits and it can be described by the location and type of buds, which produce flowers and fruit. The relative position of fruit with reference to its potential bud-giving rise to flower or inflorescence on the shoot is known as bearing habit. Each plant has its own bearing habit and are either terminally, laterally or adventiously Terminally means the fruit buds are formed on long or short growth, while laterally means the fruit buds are formed in the axils of present or past season’s growth. Adventiously, the fruit buds are formed at any point on the trunk. On the basis of bearing habits, fruit crops are categorised into the following eight groups

Growth, Fruiting Habits and Methods for Inducing Fruitfulness in Fruit Crops

•    Every plant has two distinct phases of development namely vegetative and reproductive.

•    In the vegetative phase, the plant only vegetative growth i.e. leaves, shoots etc.,

•    In the reproductive phases the plant produces reproductive growth i.e. flowers and fruits.

•    In case of annuals, these phases occur for a short period, each phase occurring only once and that too within the same season.

•    In perennials, the vegetative phase lasts for several years depending upon the variety and species. This is known as the pre-bearing period.

•    Once the perennial tree completes its pre-bearing period, the cycle of vegetative and reproductive phases might occur in each season or the reproductive phase may occur simultaneously along with vegetative phase without much distinction between the two.

15.1 Silkworm Bed Cleaning
Bed cleaning is an important silkworm rearing process to ensure the hygiene in the immediate vicinity of silkworms in order to protect from disease infection and to ensure them good feeding appetite. Hence, timely bed cleaning is critical to maintain the worm
In a study observation on larval mortality, larval period, single cocoon weight, shell weight, length of silk thread and silk ratio were carefully noted for each treatment and replication. Three replications were used for each treatment of different eri silkworm races. Treatments were once bed cleaning frequency per day, twice bed cleaning frequency per day, and three times bed cleaning frequency per instar of Vietnamese eri-silkworm races, Indian eri silkworm races, Kenyan bivoltine silkworm races, Korean bivoltine silkworm races, and Vietnamese multivoltine silkworm races. Long spinning silk thread, robust silk cocoon and shell weight and higher percentage of silk ratio of silkworm races were registered from one time bed cleaning frequency per day and two times bed cleaning frequency per day. The rearing tray of silkworms accumulates some unconsumed leaves after each feeding, exuviae after moulting, excreta, dead or diseased larvae, etc. All these if not cleaned, combine to form a thick and damp litter which promotes the growth of different micro-organisms, generation of heat and injurious gases and depletion of oxygen. Hence, it is very necessary to remove the litter periodically and the process of its removal is called bed cleaning.

By the time a child reaches the age of two he can usually keep himself dry during the day. However, it may be another year or more before he can keep dry all through the night. Even then, the best-trained child may fail to live up to expectations on certain occasions when he is highly excited.

Older boys and girls may also have occasional problems at night, especially when sleeping in a strange bed after a highly exciting evening.

The bladder is emptied unconsciously especially during sleep at night; may be associated with enlarged tonsils, thyroid deficiency, phimosis, intestinal worms, blanitis or vulvitis also sometimes pyelitis, cystitis, oxaluria even minor epilepsy.

There are many causes for this condition, ranging all the way from simple neglect of the calls of nature to degenerative changes in the spinal cord. The condition is found in all classes and at all ages. Nocturnal bedwetting is very common in weak, neurotic children. The next most numerous class is that of women who have born children and who have passed the fiftieth milestone. A laugh, a sneeze, a fright and the urine spurt from the bladder. Probably this is want of proper adjustment of the function of the nervous mechanism of the sphincter and the detrusor and the former fails to inhibit the later.

A thorough knowledge of bee biology and colony organization is crucial for practicing sustainable beekeeping, particularly within natural farming systems that rely on minimal interference. Honeybees are social creatures that thrive in complex, cooperative colonies characterized by a structured division of labor. A standard honeybee colony includes three types of adult bees—queen, workers, and drones—each with specific biological and functional roles. The queen, as the only reproductive female, lays thousands of eggs and emits pheromones that maintain order and harmony in the hive. Worker bees, which are sterile females, form the majority of the colony and are responsible for tasks such as cleaning, brood care, comb construction, hive defense, and foraging for nectar, pollen, propolis, and water. Drones, the male bees, primarily serve the purpose of mating with a virgin queen and are usually removed from the hive during winter or resource shortages.

The colony’s internal structure is equally intricate. Bees construct wax combs made of hexagonal cells that serve as nurseries for brood, storage for pollen (bee bread), and reservoirs for honey. Brood development progresses through four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Worker bees actively regulate environmental conditions like temperature and humidity to ensure optimal brood health. Natural colonies operate with remarkable cohesion, where each bee contributes to the overall survival and success of the hive. This collective organization highlights honeybees as symbols of biological efficiency and mutual dependence.

A thorough knowledge of bee biology and colony organization is crucial for practicing sustainable beekeeping, particularly within natural farming systems that rely on minimal interference. Honeybees are social creatures that thrive in complex, cooperative colonies characterized by a structured division of labor. A standard honeybee colony includes three types of adult bees—queen, workers, and drones—each with specific biological and functional roles. The queen, as the only reproductive female, lays thousands of eggs and emits pheromones that maintain order and harmony in the hive. Worker bees, which are sterile females, form the majority of the colony and are responsible for tasks such as cleaning, brood care, comb construction, hive defense, and foraging for nectar, pollen, propolis, and water. Drones, the male bees, primarily serve the purpose of mating with a virgin queen and are usually removed from the hive during winter or resource shortages. The colony’s internal structure is equally intricate. Bees construct wax combs made of hexagonal cells that serve as nurseries for brood, storage for pollen (bee bread), and reservoirs for honey. Brood development progresses through four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Worker bees actively regulate environmental conditions like temperature and humidity to ensure optimal brood health. Natural colonies operate with remarkable cohesion, where each bee contributes to the overall survival and success of the hive. This collective organization highlights honeybees as symbols of biological efficiency and mutual dependence. In natural beekeeping, it is essential to align management practices with the bees’ natural behavior. This includes maintaining a strong, healthy queen, supporting continuous brood rearing, and minimizing disruptions that can stress the colony. Recognizing seasonal patterns such as swarming, queen turnover, and periods of dormancy enables beekeepers to work with nature rather than against it.

Bees are fundamental to maintaining ecological stability and enhancing agricultural output, making it vital to understand their diversity—especially in the context of natural farming systems. Different bee species vary in behavior, environmental adaptability, honey yield, and efficiency in pollination. India is home to several native and introduced bee species, each contributing uniquely to honey production and ecosystem health. Choosing a species for natural beekeeping depends on factors like climate, local flora, and whether the beekeeper’s goal is honey production, crop pollination, or species conservation.

Among these species, Apis dorsata—the rock bee—is a large, wild bee known for building single, exposed combs on high structures such as trees and cliffs. While it can produce up to 40 kg of honey per colony annually, its aggressive nature makes it unsuitable for domestication. In contrast, Apis cerana indica, the native Indian hive bee, is better adapted to India’s diverse climates and is compatible with low-maintenance, eco-conscious farming. Producing around 6–10 kg of honey per colony annually, it suits small-scale, sustainable practices.

Bees are fundamental to maintaining ecological stability and enhancing agricultural output, making it vital to understand their diversity—especially in the context of natural farming systems. Different bee species vary in behavior, environmental adaptability, honey yield, and efficiency in pollination. India is home to several native and introduced bee species, each contributing uniquely to honey production and ecosystem health. Choosing a species for natural beekeeping depends on factors like climate, local flora, and whether the beekeeper’s goal is honey production, crop pollination, or species conservation. Among these species, Apis dorsata—the rock bee—is a large, wild bee known for building single, exposed combs on high structures such as trees and cliffs. While it can produce up to 40 kg of honey per colony annually, its aggressive nature makes it unsuitable for domestication. In contrast, Apis cerana indica, the native Indian hive bee, is better adapted to India’s diverse climates and is compatible with low-maintenance, eco-conscious farming. Producing around 6–10 kg of honey per colony annually, it suits small-scale, sustainable practices. Apis mellifera, or the European honeybee, was introduced for commercialscale beekeeping and yields 25–50 kg of honey per colony. However, its high management requirements and vulnerability to pests and environmental changes make it less viable for natural farming systems. Apis florea, the dwarf bee, yields less than 1 kg of honey annually but is highly effective at pollinating small flowering plants and maintaining biodiversity. Stingless bees, such as those in the Trigona and Melipona genera, are becoming popular in natural beekeeping due to their gentle behavior and medicinal honey. Though their honey output is minimal, they are excellent for home or communitybased beekeeping and provide crucial ecological services. Each bee species brings specific strengths and challenges. Indigenous and stingless bees stand out as the most appropriate for natural farming in India,

Introduction

The achievements in agriculture and its allied areas has made our country self sufficient economically. Our country has many landmarks in production of the grains, milk, meat, flower, vegetable etc which not only fulfill our own demands but even earning a lot of foreign exchange from export. Unemployment is a major problem effecting the growth of our country. The reasons for higher state of unemployment in rural areas can be attributed to poverty, law education and lack of job appointment. Alternatively, if the youths are self employed in the agrobased enterprises, then the problem of unemployment could be reduced to a certain limit, especially in the villages. There are so many vocations in which youth could be engaged such as dairy farming, poultry, piggery, beekeeping, mushroom cultivation, flower cultivation etc.

Abstract

Participation of rural women and youth in beekeeping activities provides a unique opportunity to improve rural livelihood and poverty reduction. Women have explored their own niche in beekeeping industry by actively engaging in post harvesting of bee products. Income generation is one of the major reasons for participating in beekeeping activities and beekeeping was ranked number one at the same level as agriculture as major source of income. Post harvesting beekeeping, however, needs liquid capital investment which, limit women and youth to fully participate in the business. Cultural practices are also one of the main hindrances for adult women and youth to participate in beekeeping activities. Nonetheless, presence of beekeeping groups and associations, community banks, forest reserves and beekeeping awareness campaigns in the areas provided opportunities for women and youth to participate in beekeeping. Beekeeping represents one opportunity for income generation which need not be time consuming and can fit in well with women’s priority activities. women be given the opportunity to start beekeeping, it is important that all beekeeping development programs ensure from the outset that extension messages reach rural women, and that they are able to take full advantage of training and credit facilities.

Rerd. L.L.Langstroth (Father of modern bee keeping) discovered movable frame hive in 1851.

In 1882, beekeeping was introduced in India.

In 1911, Rerd. Newton introduced beekeeping to South India.

Beta vulgaris 2n = 2x=18 is an important vegetable crop in Eastern and Central Europe and it belongs to family Chenopodiaceae. It is of lesser importance in Western Europe and USA where it is known as garden beet. The swollen roots are consumed as vegetable and salad. The other types which are non-horticultural forms are known as sugar beet, mangold and fodder beet.
Origin: Leaf beet is the earliest domesticated form. It is believed to be originated from Beta maritima known as sea beet which is indigenous to Southern Europe. 
Botany: Biennial producing enlarged hypocotyl (roots) and rossette of leaves in first year and flowers and seeds in second year.

Origin

Beet root originated from Beta vulgaris L. ssp. maritima by hybridization with B. patula. Crop has site of origin probably in Europe. Earlier types were with long roots like that of carrot. Beet root, sugar beet and palak belong to species B. vulgaris and are cross compatible.

Botany

Beet root is a biennial, producing a fleshy elongated hypocotyls and a rosette of leaves in first year and flowers in second year. Upper portion of fleshy root develops from hypocotyls and basal part from tap root. Concentric rings seen in cross section of root are as a result of alternate formation of vascular tissues and storage parenchyma tissues. Root skin colour varies from orange red to dark purple red. Colour of beet root is due to presence of red violet pigments of â cyanins and a yellow pigment, â xanthin. It has extensive tap root system and tap root grows as deep as 3m. Rosette leaves develop in a close sp

Begonia is a perennial flowering plant belongs to family Begoniaceae. Begonia has rich colour and beautiful form of flowers. It is free flowering and striking foliage with free growth. The name Begonia is given by Franciscan monk Charles Plumier a plant which he found during his journey from Haiti to island Martinique. He dedicated this plant to “Michel Begon” the man who had the direct manmade over the expeditions. Begonia is easy to propagate and grown from seeds and vegetative means particularly cuttings. It is a popular flowering potted plant grown in containers and hanging baskets including tuberous, semperflorens, Rex, Elatior, Loraine and gracilis. Modern commercially cultivated begonias are mostly hybrids between wild types from all over the world.

Begonia is a perennial flowering plant belongs to family Begoniaceae. Begonia has rich colour and beautiful form of flowers. It is free flowering and striking foliage with free growth. The name Begonia is given by Franciscan monk Charles Plumier a plant which he found during his journey from Haiti to island Martinique. He dedicated this plant to “Michel Begon” the man who had the direct manmade over the expeditions. Begonia is easy to propagate and grown from seeds and vegetative means particularly cuttings. It is a popular flowering potted plant grown in containers and hanging baskets including tuberous, semperflorens, Rex, Elatior, Loraine and gracilis. Modern commercially cultivated begonias are mostly hybrids between wild types from all over the world.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Begonias are native to South America and second centre of diversity is Asia from Himalayas to Southern China and Malaysia (a floristic region that encompasses Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunes, Philippines and Paera New Guinea).

The distribution of Begonia diversity is uneven throughout tropical regions, with the greatest diversity in America and Asia (>600 species each), whilst being relatively species poor in Africa (160 species) and absent in Australia (Goodall-Copestake et al., 2010). The genus is thought to have originated in Africa, while South American and South East Asian species are the results of parallel radiations over the last 20-50 million years (Plana et al., 2004, Goodall Copestake et al., 2010 and Thomas et al., 2011). Long distance dispersal is rare, for example Begonia species have failed to cross the Torres Strait from Papua New Guinea to Australia.

Introduction
In a host-parasite relationship, the interaction between the two organisms is highly specialized. Each partner impacts the other’s life by influencing their metabolism and behavior through various adaptive mechanisms, all aimed at ensuring their own survival. While the parasite exerts every effort to fully establish itself within the host—by consuming its resources, damaging its tissues, secreting toxins, and evading the host’s immune
system through molecular mimicry—the host, in turn, strives to eliminate the parasite by mobilizing its immune defenses.
Despite their ongoing conflict, neither the host nor the parasite is able to completely eradicate the other. The host seeks to fend off the harmful, invasive parasite, while the parasite aims to establish a lasting, close relationship with the host. However, this dynamic can lead to a point where either the host or the parasite, often the parasite, becomes dominant or independent, resulting in the death of one party. Thus, the host-parasite relationship appears to be a perpetual and interdependent one, each partner intricately tied to the other. When a parasite enters a host, the host must make adjustments, and the parasite must adapt
to the host’s environment. This interaction leads to the development of a relationship in which both the host and the parasite influence each other’s growth, metabolism, and overall well-being. Generally, the host-parasite relationship unfolds through a series of stages: it starts with the transmission of the parasite from one host to another, followed by the parasite’s distribution and localization within or on the new host. This is followed by the
parasite’s growth or multiplication. Throughout this process, both the host and the parasite engage in resistance efforts against each other. The process involves several stages: the parasite’s method of attack, the changes the parasite induces in the host, and the alterations the parasite undergoes due to its presence in the host. It also includes the adjustments made by both host and parasite during the infection, the escape of the parasite’s infective stages from the host, and ultimately, the host’s recovery or death

Introduction
An animal will engage in a series of display activities known as courtships to try to entice a mate and show that it wants to copulate. These actions frequently take the form of vocalisations, mechanical sound production, ritualised movement (referred to as “dances”), or exhibitions of physical prowess, agonistic aptitude, or beauty. A social activity known as courtship occurs when male and female members of the same species engage in order
to facilitate mating and reproduction. Because so many sperm are created and must find and fertilise a small number of eggs, sperm rivalry led to the evolution of courtship. Males must compete with one another for the female’s sperm in order to fertilise her eggs, which are a finite supply. Male-to-male competition and female choice are the results of sexual selection between men and females, which is a translation of gametic selection. An offshoot
of this male-male competition is the courtship display, where men have developed a variety of tools and strategies to entice females to procreate.

The Tuppa area, which is located 10-12 km away from Nanded city, and covers an area of about 66 km² was blessed with good , quality of water before industrialisation in this area. With the advent of industries more and more people from this region started complaining about the bad taste & quality of drinking water from dug and bore wells. From 1997 to1999 there was continuous increase in the lateral extent of pollution, with deeper bore wells more contaminated than the dug wells (Kaplay, et al. 2004).

ABSTRACT

In social Hymenoptera, the females carry out nest building, brood care and foraging, while males generally do not take part in any of these social behaviours and act solely as reproductives. The interesting phenomena of cooperation and altruism

ABSTRACT

Studies on the behaviour of animals are of utmost importance in the conservation of species. Ecology of the communities and individual species has to be examined in terms of different activities to understand the requirements of the species. Foraging and breeding are the major activities while resting and flight maintenance are also essential, although the time spent might vary in different species or situations.

Bird community studies conducted along with my students in different habitats in the Western Ghats since 1995 showed how the species are associated with each other and the impact of habitat changes on them. Endemic and threatened birds of the Western Ghats were specific about selection of habitat and food in different seasons. Identification of such critical habitats is crucial for conservation and management.

The studies on the bird community and drongos at Thekkady, Periyar Tiger Reserve conducted by me during 1979 to 1982, examined the association of drongos with other species in the area, especially while foraging. They fed mostly in mixed foraging flocks which is beneficial to all the participants. The strategy adopted by them for ecological isolation to reduce competition was by selecting different strata and substrate of the vegetation, varying sizes of insects, and methods of feeding.

In the case of wetland birds also habitat selection is a major behaviour limiting their numbers. For the threatened birds such as the Siberian Crane and the Andaman Teal, habitat quality and food availability were critical. Habitat degradation with over abundance of grass and reduction in sedges resulted in spending long duration for feeding and less returns.

Breeding behaviour of birds is interesting because of their strategies such as when to nest and where to nest. Studies on the seasonality have shown the importance of climatic factors. Many of our land birds nest during summer. Nest-site is also crucial as selection of the site with suitable macro and micro-habitats determine the success of the brood. The habitat patches for the individual pairs or groups of breeding birds which are defended against intruders are termed as territories which play a vital role in the distribution and density of birds. Thus the strategies adopted by species are dependent on the environment and species specific constraints affecting the survival of the species.