eChapters

Introduction

Improvements in Information and Communication technology are revolutionizing the way people access information. These new technologies are helping to improve communication, disseminate information and facilitate sharing of knowledge and skills. Zijp (1994) notes, Information Technology is making both public and private sector agricultural information systems more accessible and more rapid in transmission. The increase in electronic information and communication technologies and in particular networked information is the most notable change to affect the working practices of information professionals in recent years. Digital technologies have led to the emergence of wide-area connectivity through the Internet, making information on agriculture available worldwide and on-demand. Information technology and electronic networking particularly can strengthen organizations by improving their knowledge base and ability to share information and experiences with partners in the field. Electronic networking not only helps in the exchange of the growing volume of information but also brings people together in partnerships and facilitates a joint programme of action on common themes.

Introduction
The raising of silkworms for the purpose of producing silk is known as sericulture; It entails the rearing of silkworms as well as the cultivation of host plants; the cultivation of mulberry plants is referred to as Moriculture. A silkworm goes through five instars and four moults before beginning to spin cocoons. It goes through a full metamorphosis and goes through four life stages: the egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The life cycle of a silkworm takes roughly 6-7 weeks to complete. Following the formation of the cocoon, it is reeled by various reeling machines to create raw silk, which is then woven into garments. Transgenes are any foreign genes that are genetically engineered into an organism from another organism. Transgenesis is the term used to describe the entire process of introducing a transgene into an organism. The organism in which the gene is inserted may experience changes to its genome. Unlike plants and bacteria, transgenic silkworms have the ability to produce recombinant proteins on a large scale because of their similarity in post translational modification and protein folding to that of mammalian cells. India has begun conducting multi-location trials using transgenic silkworms that exhibit potent antiviral activity against the BmNPV virus. For the first time, field trials involving any kind of insect or animal have the approval of RCGM. In India, grass disease is responsible for roughly half of crop losses. When compared to other hybrids that farmers use, the transgenic silkworm hybrids that are produced will also have better cocoon quality parameters. Researchers have successfully created transgenic silkworms that produce glowing proteins, collagen proteins, and spider silk. Green, red, and orange silks are spun by genetically modified silkworms that have been created in Japan. While the gene sequences for red and orange proteins were taken from Fungia concinna coral and Discosoma coral, respectively, the gene sequence for green fluorescent protein was obtained from jellyfish. Researchers have verified that these colors created by transgenic silkworms persisted for a few years. Additionally, scientists have worked to create smart bandages that can destroy bacteria and so reduce the spread of infection. The first institute to create transgenic silkworms that produce fluorescent silk for wedding gowns was NIAS in 2000. The institute also produced ultrafine silk and useful proteins like medicinal antibodies. The transgenic silkworms produced by Immuno Biological Laboratories are useful in the production of influenza vaccines.

INTRODUCTION

The agriculture in north eastern hill region of India is mainly rainfed in nature and shifting cultivation, known as jhuming, is the dominant farming system. The shifting cultivation is detrimental to both soil and vegetation as it is connected to heavy soil and nutrient losses when practised in steep slopes. The burning and slashing operations are responsible for reduced floral and faunal diversity in the region. It is a well known fact that climate is the main driving factor that governs the sustainability of other natural resources such as land, water and vegetation. So far the NE region gets abundant rainfall for survival of the crops at least during the kharif season. The rainfall starts early March and continues up to the late October. The jhum cultivators follow the rainfall trend and get their field ready for sowing of seeds by early March itself so that vegetative stage of crops gets plenty of rainwater for growth and development. Due to increased population pressure, the hills of NE region are over exploited and the jhum cycle has been reduced from 10-12 years to 4-5 years now-adays. Hence the soils do not get sufficient time to revitalize it and are subjected to more and more exploitation and get degraded permanently.

1.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas.

• Cultivated in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, North Eastern States, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

• It is the king of spices.

1.2. Economic importance

• Spiciness is due to the chemical compound piperine

• In foods, used as a spice.

• High in antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

• May benefit for brain.

• May improve blood sugar control and lower cholesterol levels.

• May have cancer fighting properties.

This chapter presents laboratory procedures for measuring the major physical properties that regulate soil behaviour, water availability, aeration and root development. It begins with particle-density determination using a pycnometer and proceeds to bulk density, soil texture, moisture content, total pore space, porosity and water-holding capacity. Each practical exercise provides the underlying principle, required apparatus, procedural steps, calculations and relevant precautions. The hydrometer method is introduced for estimating the proportions of sand, silt and clay. Methods for evaluating moisture retention and pore relationships are also described. Collectively, these measurements help characterize soil structure, compaction, drainage, water storage and its suitability for crop production.

The need for better analytical tools to analyze the data in aquaculture leads to major developments in statistics. These tools play a significant role in the analysis and interpretation of data. Improvement in carp culture through genetic techniques is the only alternative for increasing the carp production and its quality when area of pond is fixed. For better hybrids or efficient strains for higher production it is essential to collect the data on the genetic diversity among the different carp species on the basis of traits. Therefore, sound statistical procedures are needed in the design of experiments as well as in the analysis of the data. This involves, the use of variability studies and the use of multivariate statistical techniques like correlations, path coefficients, D² analysis and other classificatory analysis.

Principles of Working
(Lundegårdh, 1929-1934 : Mac Intyre, 1961)

Flame photometry is the measurement of the concentration of an ionic material in a solution introduced in  to a flame, where the intensity of light emitted by the flame under these conditions is measured. We should give credit to Kirchhoff and Bunsen (1860), who developed the idea of emission spectroscopy into quantitative inorganic analysis, later on Janssen (1970) made lot of developments in this direction. The main parts of flame photometer are: (1) burner, (2) atomizer which disperses the solution as a fine spray into the flame; a means of isolating from the spectrum (i.e., filtering system, diffraction gratting etc.) only that portion of the emitted light which is a specific characteristics of the substance being examined ; a photosensitive detector with or without amplifier; and a method of measuring the desired emission. In flame photometry the diluted biological fluid is atomized directly ino the flame without need of preliminary separation. The resulting emissions are those of all the inorganic ions present. For measurement the emitted light is passed through a monochromater where the wavelength most characteristics of the material analysis and which most closely follows Beer’s law is selected.

Arteries of neck

Common carotid artery

The right and left common carotid arteries arise from the bicarotid trunk as it bifurcates on the ventral surface of the trachea at the thoracic inlet. In their course to reach the head, both of these, the right and left, common carotid arteries ascend through the neck along the ventrolateral aspect of the trachea and oesophagus respectively. During this course each of these arteries is accompanied by the vagosympathetic trunk dorsal to it, recurrent laryngeal nerve ventral to it and the internal jugular vein lateral to it. All these structures are enclosed in the carotid sheath. The external jugular vein is separated from the common carotid artery by the omohyoideus and sternocephalicus muscles. The right artery crosses the lateral surface of the trachea and passes along its dorsolateral surface and finally reaches to the lateral surface of the larynx and pharynx in front of the digastricus muscle ventral to the jugular process of the occipital bone. The left artery crosses the trachea and oesophagus and continues along its dorsolateral surface to the level of the third cervical vertebra. Here the oesophagus inclines towards the median plane and the artery follows the lateral surface of oesophagus till it reaches to the lateral surface of the larynx and pharynx just in front of the digastricus muscle and ventral to the jugular processes of the occipital bone. At this point the common carotid artery terminates by giving off the occipital, and pharyngeal arteries and then further continues as the external carotid artery. Along its course through the neck, the common carotid artery gives out several branches as below.

Arteries

Horse

The common carotid artery in horse has a similar origin, course and distribution as that in ox except that it has no relation with the internal jugular vein since this vein is absent in horse. Each common carotid artery at its termination in front of the digastricus gives out internal carotid artery in horse in addition to the occipital and pharyngeal arteries given off by the common carotid artery in ox.

The internal carotid artery which is absent in ox is present in horse. It is considered as chief source of blood for the brain in horse. It passes over the guttural pouch and enters the cranial cavity through the foramen lacerum and gains the cavernous sinus. The internal carotid arteries of the opposite sides are connected by a large transverse branch called the intercarotid artery that lies behind the pituitary gland (further course of this artery will be described with the blood supply of the brain in horse).

The external carotid artery which is a direct continuation of the common carotid artery after its termination in front of the digastricus muscle is related to guttural pouch during its course along with other structures described in ox.

Polyploid is any organism with other than two basic sets of chromosomes, that is, monoploid, triploid, tetraploid, and various aneuploids. Species that have their chromosomes as multiples of a basic number (x) are polyploids. Many of the species which have been developed most recently are polyploids. Autoploidy is not known to have significantly impacted the evolution of species. Autoploids of commercial importance include banana, a triploid which is seedless (diploid bananas have hard seeds not desirable for consumption). Other important autoploids are tetraploid crops, namely, alfalfa, peanut, potato and coffee. Spontaneous autoploids are important in horticultural crops where gigas feature has produced superior varieties of flowering ornamentals of narcissus, tulip, hyacinth, gladiolus, and dahlia among others. Triticale is the most common example of man-made cereal through allopolyploidy. A number of economically important crops are natural alloploids. These include wheat, oat, tobacco, cotton, sugarcane, strawberry and blueberry, wild mustard, black mustard, rutabaga/rape, etc.

Radish (Raphanus sativus, 2n = 2x = 18, family Brassicaceae or Cruciferae, cross-pollinated crop) is grown over 7 million ha where China, Japan, India, South Korea, and Europe are the main producers. As per Horticulture Statistics at a Glance-2018 (MAFW, 2018), India produced 30 lakh tons of radish from 2 lakh ha acreage with a productivity of 15 tons/ha during 2017-18. Ten top ranking states in India with acreage within the range of 6000 to 33000 ha are West Bengal, Haryana, Bihar, Assam, Punjab, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka.

Today, radishes are grown throughout the world. Different local people prefer to use various parts of the radish plants including roots, leaves, sprouts, seed pods and oil from seeds as their food according to their own custom. Radishes are low in calories and high in vitamin C, folate, and potassium. Radishes contain sulfurous compounds, such as sulforaphane, which have anti-cancer properties, and are expectorant.

Vegetable pea also known as garden pea (Pisum sativum, 2n = 2x = 14, family Fabaceae, formley Leguminosae, sub-family Papilionaceae), is rich in vitamins and sugars. Its green immature grains are consumed as fresh vegetables. Picked peas, are canned, frozen and dehydrated or freeze dried for super stores markets. Those associated with the immature pod are the snow, sugar or sugar snap types where pods are consumed. The total pea production world-wise has steadily increased owing to increasing green pea volume and top five countries are China (1.4 million ha), India (0.50 million ha), United States (0.08 million ha), United Kingdom (0.04 million ha) and Algeria (0.04 million ha). For field pea, the major producing countries are Russia, China, Canada, Europe, Australia and United States.

India produced 5.42 million tons of garden pea from 0.54 million ha area during 2017-18 giving a productivity of 10 tons/ha. The major garden pea producing states in India in descending order are UP, MP, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam. UP alone accounts for 40% of the total garden pea area. Within UP, major districts contributing to the vegetable pea are Jalaun, Lalitput, Jhansi, Mahoba, Kasganj, Etah, Sultanpur, Azamgarh, Hamirpur, and Amethi (MAFW, 2018).

Need for Impact Assessment

Fisheries Research is an economic activity. Like any other investment propositions, resource allocation to Fisheries Research needs to be justified. The society or the donors are always interested to know what happened to the money invested in Fisheries Research. It is important to document the returns and/or benefits accrued from the research investment. Objective assessment of research investment helps in making decision and allocating resources in high returns research portfolio. It also helps to know which research areas and programs benefit the poor and regions. In the paradigm shift, the donors are seeking evidences on impact of past funding as a basis for future financial support. Systematic impact assessment forms the basis for efficient resource allocation in alternative research programs competing for financial support. Research programs demonstrate better historical performance, in terms of benefits generated for the society, and are rated higher for attracting required research resources. Impact assessment studies are also getting more prominence as the international environment is rapidly changing due to many emerging complex problems. Socioeconomic and environmental problems, like poverty, international trade, degradation of natural resources, are growing fast and the donors are looking for the research programs, which can overcome these challenges. Therefore, systematic impact assessment studies would form a strong base for higher research funding to overcome many regional, national and global problems.

Washing is typically the first step in the fruit and vegetable production process. In small-scale operations, this is usually done in basins with recirculating water or with still water that is regularly replaced. The goal of washing is to remove dirt and contaminants from the produce before it enters the processing line, preventing potential contamination of the raw materials.
The washing should be done with clean water, as pure as possible, and if needed, the water can be made potable by adding 10 ml of a 10% sodium hypochlorite solution for every 100 liters of water. It’s also important to use tools that ensure thorough cleaning of the produce, leaving no dirt behind for the next stages of processing.
THE VEGETABLE WASHING MACHINE'S PRINCIPLE
A vegetable washing machine was designed and manufactured with the needs of micro, small, and medium-scale vegetable growers in mind. The machine focuses on high washing capacity and efficiency, with stainless steel components used to ensure the quality of the washed produce. A durable primary frame was incorporated to maintain the machine’s structural integrity.
To enhance safety and ease of use, protective coverings were added around the moving parts, while also prioritizing ergonomic design and straightforward operation and maintenance. The machine features rollers for easy mobility, and as the vegetables move along the conveyor belt at a set speed, sprinklers spray water to clean them effectively.

Washing is typically the first step in the fruit and vegetable production process. In small-scale operations, this is usually done in basins with recirculating water or with still water that is regularly replaced. The goal of washing is to remove dirt and contaminants from the produce before it enters the processing line, preventing potential contamination of the raw materials.
The washing should be done with clean water, as pure as possible, and if needed, the water can be made potable by adding 10 ml of a 10% sodium hypochlorite solution for every 100 liters of water. It’s also important to use tools that ensure thorough cleaning of the produce, leaving no dirt behind for the next stages of processing.
THE VEGETABLE WASHING MACHINE'S PRINCIPLE
A vegetable washing machine was designed and manufactured with the needs of micro, small, and medium-scale vegetable growers in mind. The machine focuses on high washing capacity and efficiency, with stainless steel components used to ensure the quality of the washed produce. A durable primary frame was incorporated to maintain the machine’s structural integrity.
To enhance safety and ease of use, protective coverings were added around the moving parts, while also prioritizing ergonomic design and straightforward operation and maintenance. The machine features rollers for easy mobility, and as the vegetables move along the conveyor belt at a set speed, sprinklers spray water to clean them effectively.

Blood Sampling

Blood samples shall be taken in the early morning hours before offering any diet to human subjects or ration to livestock. The syringe and needle should be autoclaved, needle should be free from any blockage etc. In the case of ruminants, blood sample is taken directly from jugular vein, while in swine, blood sample is drawn from ear vein, while in human subjects, blood is taken from prominent vein on the inner surface of the yellow usually the (medium basilic). The container (test tube etc.) should be dried and autoclaved. We should separate plasma (from anticoagulent mixed blood) and serum from ordinary blood by centrifugation immediately. We should remember by heart  that blood samples should not be kept in deep freezer, because there are chances of haemolysis as well as an abnormal distribution of certain ions and enzymes between the cells and the serum. We should never force the blood through the needle as such type of practice may result in extensive hemolysis. We should discard first few drops of blood, while taking sample. We should prepare protein free filtrate immediately. Protein-free filtrate may be kept in a much better way than whole blood or plasma.

The levels of calcium (Ca), inorganic phosphorus (P) and magnesium (Mg) may help in early diagnosis of metabolic and deficiency disorders and for monitoring the herd health status of dairy cattle to maintain production and reproduction.

Estimation of Serum calcium

Calcium is present in 2 forms – inorganic and organic forms. Most of the functions of the calcium depend upon the ionized form. For estimation of serum calcium the most commonly used method is Clark and Collip method.

This chapter starts quoting first para of the book entitled Disease Resistance in Plants by Van Der Plank (1968). “In 1958 the American Phytopathological Society met to celebrate its Golden Jubilee and review the problems and progress in plant pathology during the 50 years, 1908 to 1958. J. C. Walker was elected to review the problems and progress in controlling plant diseases by host resistance, a fitting tribute to one who perhaps more than any other had contributed during those 50 years both to understanding of nature of resistance and to the practical application of resistance to problems in horticulture and agriculture. In his summary Walker wrote “By and large the development of resistant varieties must be looked upon as a continuing program. The potential variability of most pathogens (including viruses) will not permit any currently successful variety to remain so for an indefinite period”. This opening para tells the importance of breeding for resistance to diseases in crop plants on a continuous basis as the fight between host and the pathogen will go on and on.

1.1. Origin and distribution

• The oldest known beverage, tea is native of China (Between China and Burma) in South East Asia.

• Known to the Chinese as early as 2737BC, but it was a popular drink in England in 1664 AD.

• Original species, which produce tea, were C.assamica (Assam jats), C.sinensis (China jats) and their natural hybrid, C.assamica subspecies lasiocalyx (Indo China or cambod type).

• Chinese (Small leaf) tea - C. sinensis var. sinensis: Originated in southern China possibly with hybridization of unknown wild tea relatives

• Chinese Western Yunnan Assam (Large leaf) tea

• Indian Assam (Large leaf) tea- C. sinensis var. assamica: Originated from Camellia taliensis in the area where southwestern China, Indo-Burma, and Tibet meet

• Chinese Southern Yunnan Assam (Large leaf) tea: Hybridized with the closely related species Camellia taliensis

• Difference between Assam and China types

2.1. Chromosome number

• Basic chromosome number for the genus Coffea is n=11

• Coffea canephora-diploid (2n=2x=22)

• Coffea arabica (2n=4x=44 )

2.2. Origin and distribution

• Original domesticated coffee plant is said to have been from Harar and native population is derived from Ethiopia (Abyssinia Plateau) with distinct nearby populations in Sudan and Kenya.

• From where, it was taken to Arabia in 11^th century.

• From Arabia, its seeds were brought to India by Baba Budan in the 17^th Century and were raised in the Baba Budan Hills of Karnataka.

• British planters established large coffee estates near Chikmagalur (Karnataka) in 1826, in Manantody (Wynad) and Shevoroys in 1830 and Nilgiris in 1839.

• Almost the entire production is shared by Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, smaller production in Andhra Pradesh, north eastern states and Madhya Pradesh.

• Karnataka is the largest producer accounting for 70% of total coffee production and 60% of the area

• Kozhikode, Waynad, Malappuram, Kollam, Kannur and Palakkad are the chief producing districts in Kerala.