eChapters

Introduction

Biotechnology is defined as the ‘application of scientific and engineering principles to the processing of material by biological agents to provide goods and services’. The term ‘biotechnology’ is also used when a technique involving live organisms are employed to make or modify a product, improve plants or animals or develop microorganisms for specific uses. According to the definition of the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC 2001), modern biotechnology is defined as the application of (i) in vitro nucleic acid techniques, including recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and direct injection of nucleic acid into cells or organelles, or (ii) fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic family, that overcome natural physiological reproductive or recombination barriers, and that are not techniques used in traditional breeding and selection. Scientific developments of present world owe to processes and products of the field of biotechnology. Modern biotechnological advancements have played a major role in important branches of science such as agriculture, food processing, medicine and veterinary applications. Biotechnological interventions of the downstream processing applications include primary production areas namely breeding of crops and livestock, production of additives for food and feed and pharmaceuticals along with diagnostic tools. Inputs for food processing applications from biotechnology include biocatalysts such as enzymes, tracing food ingredients such as Genetically modified (GM) ingredients in end products of food and feed and food quality testing applications for food borne pathogens. Applications of modern biotechnology in form of genetically modified organisms have gained much importance in comparison to the downstream applications during food processing and food safety (Zhu, 2017). Food processing operations include transformation of harvested crop or animal produce into produce which are marketable with long shelf life and minimises waste and losses of raw produce in food chain and ensure their continuous availability in super market shelves. Food safety is an important area which assures of the food being safe for consumption. Food technological applications of modern biotechnology includes food enzymes that are important in various food processing applications in reactions involving lipids, carbohydrates and proteins, food fermentations to improve properties such as taste, flavour, texture, nutritional and shelf stability, food additives in form of bio preservatives, flavours, fragrances, genetically modified starter cultures, genetically modified crops, modern rapid diagnostic kits for food safety are discussed in detail.

Principal Scientist and I/c Head, Division of Social Sciences and Training, IIHR, Hessaraghatta Lake Post, Bangalore – 560 089, Karnataka

Introduction

In the face of growing threat of accelerating climate change, global focus is shifting towards plant-based alternatives as a means for climate resilient ecosystems to meet the food requirements of global population. Such a change in priority is also seen in the growing global awareness towards a shift in daily ‘diets’ away from the meat-based ones towards healthier and balanced ones involving fruits and vegetables that provides cheaper yet nutritionally secure alternatives. A reiteration of this fact that speaks volumes about the changing priority is the UN declaration of the year 2021-22 as ‘the International Year of Fruits & Vegetables’ to raise awareness about balanced nutrition and to direct policy towards efficient management of production with minimizing post- harvest losses and wastage.

Subtropical and Tropical Fruits

Most of the area of India experience subtropical and tropical climate. Subtropical and tropical fruits contribute maximum to the overall fruit production. Major fruit crops cultivated in subtropical and tropical region are citrus, mango, litchi, guava, sapota, pomegranate, banana, ber, sapota, grapevine, papaya etc. Various pests affect the fruit production by infesting at various stages of the tree growth quantitatively as well as qualitatively. The pests of these crops are described fruit wise.

Citrus

Most of the area of our country is tropical and subtropical, where the citrus, Citrus spp. cultivation is practiced and main citrus growing areas are in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Karnataka, Uttarakhand, Bihar, Orissa, Assam and Gujarat. As for as the ranking in the world

Introduction
Forecasting of future weather conditions are based upon the collection and analysis of meteorological observations. With the help of advanced computing system and satellite data, the accuracy of weather forecasting is improving day by day. Weather forecasts may be classified according to the space and time scale of the predicted phenomena. With advanced technology, the spatial resolution of accurate forecast is enhanced and India Meteorological Department (IMD) has started to issue the Block-level forecast. The meteorological phenomenon can be distinguished among three classes of phenomena with a scale that is larger than the turbulent microscale: the mesoscale, synoptic scale, and planetary scale (Geer et al., 2018). Considering the variability of agro-climatic condition of India, the micro-level weather based agro-advisory has great importance to enhance the farm income. IMD has initiated the Block-level Agromet Advisory Services (AAS) in collaboration with Indian Council of Agricultural Research through establishment of District Agromet Units (DAMUs) at various Krishi Vigyan Kendra’s (KVK). Improvisation of the existing District-level Agromet Advisory Services (AAS) and starting of Block-level services are the basic objectives of DAMU. The District Agromet Units will act as nodal centre to prepare and disseminate the crop and locationspecific AAS to farmers at block level. Apart from this, the micro-level Agromet Advisory Service was implemented at NICRA (National Innovation on Climate Resilient Agriculture) villages through a network project of Indian  Council of Agricultural Research (Banerjee et al, 2018; Chakraborty et al., 2018). As a part of the nation-wide program, the feasibility of village level agromet advisory has been assessed. Thus, the importance of micro-level  agromet advisory and advisory on extreme weather events are discussed in this chapter.

INTRODUCTION

Ethno-Veterinary Medicine (EVM) or Veterinary Anthropology refers to holistic and interdisciplinary study of traditional knowledge, skills, methods, practices and folk beliefs of the people about the health care of animal husbandry and production of livestock (McCorkle, 1986). It encompasses information on diseases and their control; remedies and clinical practices for treatment and prevention; management, feeding and breeding strategies; spiritual elements; and the use of human resources that hold the information and experience (Mathias, 2004).

Abstract

Beekeeping is an agro-based activity which is being undertaken by farmers/landless labours in rural area as an integrated framing practice. It supplements income & employment generation and nutritional intake. Honeybees have been offering services to the society through ensured pollination in crops and providing honey and a variety of other bee hive products viz.; royal jelly, pollen, propolis, bee wax, bee venom, etc. Honey Bees have their vital role in sustaining plants bio-diversity resulting in environmental stability. Mainly five species of honeybees viz.; Apis cerana, A. mellifera, A. florea, A. dorsata, Stingless bees are in used in India.  Beekeeping industry has quadruple benefits: 1) providing self employment to rural and forest based population; 2) production of honey, pollen and beeswax, venom, royal jelly, etc., 3) providing employment to rural educated youths in collecting, processing and marketing of bee/beehive-products; and 4) cross-pollination of various agricultural and horticultural crops and improving their quality and increasing yields.

Management approaches to soil, including problems of soil degradation and low soil fertility, have recently undergone major changes. The earlier concept was to concentrate on achieving high levels of production from the more fertile areas, leaving the marginal lands for extensive use only. Steeply sloping and highly drought-prone areas were mostly left without any cultivation as production from these areas was hardly cost effective. Soil constraints were to be overcome by inputs like improved crop varieties, fertilizers, chemical control of pests and diseases, and the use of irrigation.

The approach of use of newly developed high yielding crop varieties, improved agronomic management practices, use of chemical fertilizers, efficient water management and timely plant protection measures has been successful in achieving large increases in crop productivity in recent years. On the other hand, continuous application of fertilizers at higher rates leads to environmental problems. Yield responses to fertilizers have declined because of soil physical degradation and micronutrient deficiencies. Above all, large numbers of poor farmers simply can neither afford high levels of fertilizers and other purchased inputs, nor do they have the capital to take on the risk involved in their use. Increasing the area under irrigation has also run into severe constraints in the form of limits to available freshwater resources.

Introduction

The traditional methods of food production are coming under increasing strain due to the ever- increasing population of the world and the ever- decreasing availability of land and water resources. The good news is that there are currently concrete solutions to some of these difficulties that can be provided by technology. The fact that climate change is happening while the global population is growing poses the question of how we can ensure that the food we produce is reliable and of consistent quality. Is it possible to grow food in settings that can be regulated, allowing for production that is not dependent on the weather or temperature? It is just a computer enthusiast who is thrilled about how the industry is evolving, but maybe that makes it sound like a visionary. Over the course, gathering a significant amount of expertise working on initiatives that include the use of technology towards horticulture concerns is important. In order to keep newly emerging pests and diseases under control, horticultural crops require a higher degree of personal attention and plant monitoring than arable crops. The use of this intensive but integrated management strategy cleared the path for technology advancements that automated and optimized the farming processes that were previously handled manually, hence introducing increased precision and dependability

The Importance of Adoption of Technologies

Recently, the necessity to improve production, earnings, and productivity was the primary driving force behind the choice of technology that was made available to farmers. The primary obstacles included a lack of access to cash, a lack of familiarity with how to use the technology, and exposure to market risks, the latter of which was mitigated by the policies of the government in many countries. In the past, “good policy practices” were therefore rather straightforward, relating primarily to increasing output, and the goal of agricultural and horticulture policies was to increase productivity in agriculture and horticulture. This was the case because in the past, “good policy practices” were related to increasing output. It is possible that agricultural research and extension services could center their efforts, for instance, on increasing the overall productivity of smaller farms.

Mango, Mangifera indica is indigenous to India and ranks at number one as for as production and export are concerned. The productivity of mango in India is low (6.6MT/ha) and one of the reasons for the same is pests associated with the crop at varying stages of the tree growth. Around 175 insect pests have been reported to infest mango but only few are the major pests the details of which re provided hereunder:

Mango hopper, Idioscopus clypealis (Lethiery); I. niveosparsus (Lethiery); Amritodus atkinsoni (Lethiery) (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera) Hoppers constitute one of the most destructive pests of mango throughout the country. The eggs are dull white and concealed inside tissue. The colour of the nymphs vary from dust yellow to pale yellow and these nymphs walk in a crab like manner. The adults are small wedge shaped grayish insects measuring3.4-5.1mm in length. Amritodus atkinsoni is comparatively bigger and light brown in colour with two spots on scutellum, while Idioscopus clypealis is smallest and lighter in colour with dark spots

The term institutional support refers to provision of economic and social environment for industry and business. Institutional supports are needed in all the three stages of promotion of any entrepreneur i.e. inception stage, operational stage and expansion or diversification stage. It helps in creating awareness, capacity building, hand holding, incubation, mentorship etc. by means of financial support and policy advice. There are three dimensions of Institutional support, viz. Central Government, State Government and Non- government support system.
Central Government institutions providing support for entrepreneurship
development
a) Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises
Here are some key institutions under the Ministry of MSME working towards entrepreneurship.
1. Coir Board
Established in 1954under coir industry act 1954
Location: Kochi
Objectives
• Promotes the coir (Coconut) industry and supports coir-based products.
• Provides training, research, and development support.
2. The Small-Scale Industries Board
• It is an advisory body in India aimed at promoting and supporting small-scale industries (SSIs). Year of Establishment: 1954.
• Location: New Delhi
Objectives
• Advise the government on policies related to the development and promotion of small-scale industries.

Introduction

Coccidiosis is the most economically harmful disease encountered in commercial poultry production. It is caused by single celled protozoan parasites of the genus Eimeria which are commonly referred to as coccidia. Williams (1998) reported that the annual worldwide loss is about $ 800 million. The total loss due to coccidiosis is found to be Rs. 1.14 billion in India. The important finding is that almost 70 percent of the estimated cost is due to subclinical coccidiosis, by impact on weight gain and feed conversion rate. One of the reasons for these remarkable finding is probably the difficult diagnosis of subclinical coccidiosis.

Chickens are susceptible to at least seven species of Eimeria. The most common species are Eimeria tenella, which causes the caecal coccidiosis, E. necatrix &E. maxima, which causes mid intestinal coccidiosis, E. acervulina which causes anterior intestinal coccidiosis and E. brunetti which causes posterior intestinal or rectal coccidiosis. E. mitis and E. praecox are generally mildly pathogenic and commonly occurring as co-infection/mixed infection in with other species. Coccidiosis is particularly difficult to combat because several different species of Eimeria exist in the field. Poultry may become infected with different species because the immunity that develops after infection is specific only to one species. Eimeria has direct and complex life cycle that involves many developmental stages within the host cells. Each Eimeria species has characteristic intestinal lesions and type of diarrhoea (with or without blood).

INTRODUCTION

The fermented products probably came into existence at least before the British Era in Northeastern states of India [before 1824, The Yandabu Agreement between British Govt. and Burma (now Myanmar)] when the British first introduced salt in the region. Interestingly, in all the fermented fish products of this region no salt is used as ingredient which is a major difference with the other fish based fermented fish products of Southeast Asian countries such as Nuac-mum of Vietnam, Budu of Malaysia, Patis of the Philippines etc. Even after the British Era, people used to treat salt as a highly valued and scarce commodity and they used to take an alternative commodity, for example khar in Assam, made from banana plant or papaya. Hence, they could not afford spending salt in fish preservation and they were bound to preserve fish in their own cheaper and easier way.

The most abundantly and commonly available compounds in the plant kingdom are carbohydrates. They comprise saccharides viz.

Monosaccharides - glucose, fructose etc.

Disaccharides - sucrose, lactose, maltose etc.; and

Polysaccharides - starch, cellulose etc.

Cellulose is the major component of plant cell wall.

The active groups in carbohydrates are aldehyde (-CHO) and ketone (=CO). In addition, they contain hydroxyl groups as well. The chemical properties of saccharides vary depending upon the number of hydroxyl groups and the presence or absence of (–CHO) or (=CO) groups.

Introduction

India is transforming from the phase of revolution to commercial mode of agriculture, a step ahead of self-sufficiency. It further evolves to reach a goal of self-reliant on agriculture and allied sector. The present phase demands several technological innovations, their application and implementation in the market. Meanwhile this phase needs due attention for handling the issues on conservation of natural resources, especially germplasm resource, biodiversity conservation, socio-cultural-economic values of our country, etc. The whole process requires good investment on research and development, various economic measures and implementation. It is only possible with vibrant governance and policy implementation of a Government. Already Government of India has taken several measures to transform agriculture. Recent analysis showed that Indian agriculture is the silent ever green revolution. Food production is kept pace with the growing population since independence. Further, it needs several innovations on technologies coupled with policy support to fill the demand. India is placed 49^th position in the world on innovations. Analysis suggested the huge potential for innovation due to its huge human capital, which perhaps need for the country like India to meet the food demand of 333 million tonnes by the year 2050. These innovations must be focussed for growth to efficiency, employment generation, food security to nutrition and health, shortage management to surplus management, input intensive to knowledge intensive agriculture, climate change and sustainability, production and producers, policy interventions, regulations and reforms. The Government emphasize usage of e-trading platforms to sell the farmers’ produce of their choice rather using mandis. This will enable contract farming and inter-state trade. However, major innovations and investment must be implemented on transportation, logistics, and digital access and payments to enable widespread prosperity. Thus, focus must be on the complete agricultural value chain. In fact, focus needed on value addition, rural infrastructure, logistics, warehousing, and quality certification of agriculture produce. India has greatest challenges to face in the future for food and nutritional security, adaptation and mitigation to climate change and sustainable use of essential and scared resources like water, land and energy.

As compared to total N soil total P is present in much smaller amounts in soil; it is roughly about 10% of total N. Further, while N in soil is in the largest amount in surface 0 to 15 cm layer, soil P may be the same or in larger amounts in the sub-soil. Again, organic P constitutes only a small portion of total P. Thus, the Chemistry of soil P is generally centered on inorganic P. Total and organic P in some Indian soils is given in Table 8.1; hill soils had the highest and the desert soils the least total as well as organic P.

FRACTIONS OF INORGANIC P

All P in soils has originated from apatites [3 (Ca₃ (PO₄)₂.Ca×₂, where ×₂ could be F, Cl, (OH) or CO₃). Large deposits of apatites form phosphate rocks, which are the major materials for making phosphate fertilizers. As the soil weathering proceeds, P in apatite reacts with Al, Fe and other cations and forms compounds of different solubility. A knowledge of these can help in understanding the P-supplying capacity of soils. A number of chemical extractants and resins are used for determining different fractions. In general, 7 fractions of inorganic soil P are mentioned. These are: saloid-P (soluble and loosely bound P extractable by NH₄Cl), labile P (determined by using anion-exchange resins), Al-P (NH₄F extractable), Fe-P (NaOH extractable), Ca-P (H₂SO₄ or HCl extractable), reductant-soluble- P (CDB or sodium citrate-sodium dithionite-sodium bicarbonate extractable) and occluded P (CTB followed by NaOH extractable)

Description and Distribution
The genus Anethum comprises 3 species, 2 of which are recognized for commercial use, and, yield Dill oil used in medicine.These 2 species are:
1. Anethum graveolens (European Dill)
2. Anethum sowa (Indian Dill)
European Dill is indigenous to Europe and is cultivated in England, Germany, Romania, Turkey ,USA and former Soviet Union. Until recently, it was not grown in India. However, efforts have been made to acclimatize it in Jammu (Kashmir, India) according to the Regional Research Laboratory (RRL, Jammu) and the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India, Bhubaneshwar (Odisha State) and its exports also have started since 1988-89. The trends in exports are given in the following table (Table 24)
Export Trends Overview of Top 10 Exporting Countries in 2023
In 2023, India was the top exporting country of Dill, followed by Turkiye, South Africa, China, United States, Spain, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Netherlands, United Arab Emirates. This ranking is based on available export data and may not include countries with missing records.

12.1 Introduction

“Precision farming,” also known as site-specific management, describes a bundle of new information technologies applied to the management of large-scale, commercial agriculture. Precision farming technologies include, for example: personal computers, satellite-positioning systems, geographic information systems, automated machine guidance, remote sensing devices and telecommunications. If they function as designed, ubiquitous wireless sensors will become an essential tool for bringing this vision of precision farming to maturity.

2.1 Particle Size Distribution Analysis

Soil is composed of inorganic particles and organic molecules of varying size and shape. The expression of the proportion of the different size inorganic particles is termed as ‘soil texture’. It is one of the most important basic characters being little changed by cultivation or other practices. Particles are arbitrarily distinguished into following groups on the basis of their diameters.