eChapters

Bacteria are morphologically different. This characteristic is helpful in the identification of bacteria. Routine study of bacterial morphology should include examination of stained preparations. Motility should be examined by hanging drop preparation. According to the requirement, certain cell structures may be stained. Stained preparations should be made preferably from fresh agar slant cultures. Smears of Streptococcus should be made from a liquid culture. Morphology of bacteria may be described under the following terms:

1.Shape: Spherical, coccobacillary, short or long rods, filamentous, comma- shaped, curved or spiral forms.

2.Size: Spherical are measured in diameter and rod-shaped in length and breadth. Measurement is expressed in microns (µ).

3.Sides: Straight, concave, bulging, parallel or irregular.

4.Ends: Round, pointed, truncate or concave.

5.Axis: Straight or curved.

6.Arrangement: Singly, in twos, in groups of four or eight, in grape-like bunches, in long chains, or scattered irregularly, may be in bundles, angular arrangements or in Chinese letters.

7.Pleomorphism: Bacteria may differ from their typical shape. Some of the older cultures may depart greatly from their typical forms, and may show spindles, clubs, and filaments, swollen and branching forms. Variation may be both in shape and size.

8.Capsule: May or may not be present. When present, size should be noted. This requires special staining.

Most of the DNA of an living organism is packaged and organized in a chromosome as well as in mitochondria and cell organelles (Feulgen and Rossenbeck 1924). DNA is not found on its own but rather is structured in long strands wrapped around protein complex called nucleosome consisted of a protein called histone. During most of the duration of cell cycle a chromosome consists of long double helix DNA molecule (with associated proteins)During S phase the chromosome gets replicated resulting in X –shaped structure (chromatids) and still attached to a single centromere. The basic role of the chromosome is to provide a frame work which allows each linear segment of the genome to replicate and segregate efficiently. Failure in either of processes cause chromosome imbalance in daughter cells. Three specific cis-acting sites are required for stable chromosome maintenance, i.e., an origin of replication, a centromere and telomeres.

Classical studies of the morphologyof individual chromosomesof the plant species begun by S. Nawaschin 1910-16 and continued by Taylor (1925), Sharp (1929) and Mc Clintock (1929-30). And eventually it was possible to set up working models which account for the internal structure and chemistry of the chromosome and the genetic material as well as genetical facts. The use of aceto-carmine with iron (Belling, 1921) and application of heat greatly improved the staining differentiation of chromosomes. Smears have practically replaced the paraffin techniques of studying chromosome. The gross morphology of chromosomes is generally worked out either at prophase stages of meiosis or metaphase in somatic tissues. The chromosomes may differ in thickness, total length, position of centromere or spindle fiber attachment region, chromomere pattern and number and position of secondary constriction. The total length of chromosomes at metaphase also differs in different tissues of a species and also in certain tissues chromosome present may be very different in appearance. Figure 1 shows various morphological features of a eukaryotic chromosome

‘Integument’, the outer layer of insects consists of the ‘basement membrane’, ‘epidermis’ and the ‘cuticle’. One of the most important characteristics of insects is the presence of the rather hard, flexible chitinous exoskeleton or cuticle, which covers the entire body and provides support to the body. The exoskeleton of insects that is akin to the internal skeleton of vertebrates accounts for their size and shape. Movement is made possible by the division of the cuticle into separate plates or sclerites.  Primarily these  sclerites  are confined to segments and the sclerite of one segment is connected to the sclerite of the adjoining segment by means of an articulate called ‘suture’, a region in which the cuticle is very thin and flexible. The cuticle of each segment is divided into four primary sclerites viz., a dorsal tergum, two lateral pleura and a ventral sternum. The dermal glands present in the epidermal layer secrete the entire cuticle of the insect.

Like that of the body, the cuticular skeleton of the appendages is divided into tube-like segments connected to one another by articular membranes, thus creating a joint at each junction. Such joints enable the segments of the appendages, as well as those of the body to move freely.

In addition to the exoskeleton, an endoskeleton is also developed. This may be an infolding of the procuticle that produces inner projections or ‘apodemes’ equal to bones in vertebrates on which the muscles are inserted.

The insect body is made up of multicellular tissues. The body is bilaterally symmetrical and is covered by a hard, chitinous exoskeleton. The chitin at the junction of the segments is thinner and pliable and hence insects can bend their bodies. The exoskeleton is made up of several layers of non-living cells produced from the epidermis. Because of the hard chitin us exoskeleton of the body, the growth of the insect is affected beyond a certain extent. So, to facilitate further growth,, this exoskeleton is cast off a few times and this is known as ‘molting’. The number of moultings in a particular species is more or less constant.

Life forms are composed of one of two basic cell types : Eukaryotic or Prokaryotic. Generally, eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex than the prokaryotic cells and possess a membrane-enclosed nucleus; eukaryotic means ‘true nucleus’ (eu=true; karyon = nucleus). All plants, animals, fungi, protozoa and algae are composed of eukaryotic cells. Only the microorganisms classes as bacteria and the archaea are prokaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells have no nuclear membrane and therefore lack a true nucleus. The latin prefix pro means ‘early’ and in this instance suggests the somewhat primitive nuclear structure found in bacterial cells. Eukaryotic microorganism are sometimes simply referred to as eukaryotes, and the prokaryotic microbes as prokaryotes.

A. General Morphology

2.1 The Root

It is the organ of a plant that typically lies below the surface of the soil.The root is best defined as the non-leaf, non-nodes bearing parts of the plant’s body. However, important internal structural differences between stems and roots exist. Root spices are, rather surprisingly, rare. Some popular examples of spices having roots are: Apium graveolens (Celery), Armoracia rusticana (Horse radish), Coriandrum sativum (Coriander), Ferula asafoetida (Asafetida), Glycyrrhiza glabra (Licorice), Levisticum officinale (Lovage), (Petroselinum crispum (Parsley), etc. All of the mentioned plants have aromatic roots.Roots of gingiberaceae are adventitious and storage roots arise from among the nodes of these scales.

Abstract

The coastal regions are always tectonically active since these form the junction between the continental and oceanic plates. These tectonic activities and the resultantly tutored fluvial and marine geomorphic processes and the independent fluvial and marine geomorphic processes carve out the coastal morphology. And if these coastal geomorphic features are studied, it will lead to the understanding of the morphotechtonics. One such a study carried out for a part of Ganjam coast, revealed various geomorphic anomalies viz: presence of high order hill ranges only in the north eastern and south western parts of the area with the central plain, northerly migrating Ganjam river, development of wide beach ridges only along the central plain, all indicating the Late Quaternary upliftment of the central plain.

Introduction

The Indian subcontinent is vested with nearly 9,000km long coastline both in its eastern and the western continental margins. These coasts provide unique configuration with convexities (land protruding into the coast), concavities (vice-versa), deltas of different morphologies, beach ridges and swales, bay mouth bars, peaks, serrations and projections in the shorelines, all indicating the vibrant tectonic, fluvial, marine and aeolian processes. As the coastal zones in general, form the boundaries between the continental and oceanic plate margins, these are inherent weak zones prone to tectonic activities, which in conjunction with other geomorphic processes, provide unique architecture to the coasts with above varied geomorphic features. That too, the Indian coasts were inferred to stand as testimony to the vibrant tectonic activities and other related geodynamic processes of the Quaternary period (Ramasamy, 1989; Ramasamy, 1999).

Mosaic is the combination of two or more raster images into single image. Sometimes, single image captured by remote sensing satellite doesn’t completely covers the desired study area mostly. Therefore, users resort for mosaicking two or more images captured by satellite sensors from different paths so that the whole study area is merged into a single raster image to facilitate the image processing and analysis. The pixel size of the raster images should be same for mosaicking.

In most of the cases, there is spatial overlapping among the raster images from which we want to create mosaic. These overlapping areas are handled in multiple ways which is being discussed further using R – code example. For mosaicking raster images in R, mosaic function of the raster package is used.

Purpose: In propagation of fruit plants by any vegetative methods such as cuttings, budding and in to the selection of ‘mother plants” and “bud-wood”. Use of bud-wood or any other propagation material from high yielding, true to-type, disease free trees (mother plant) will ensure uniform behaviour of trees in the orchard. If possible, propagation material from a single source is used.

Bud-wood used for budding purpose from high yielding, true-to-type and disease free trees certified for the above character by a certifying agency is referred as ‘certified bud’

Procedure: By adopting the flow sheet given below, clean scion from healthy, productive plants, can be selected for vegetative propagation.

1. INTRODUCTION

Motifs are patterns in biological sequences which can indicate the presence of certain biological characteristics and function. In general, these could represent patterns in any kind of biological sequences such as DNA sequences, RNA sequences and protein sequences. Evolutionary conserved regions (ECRs) are sequences with atleast 100 bp length alongwith minimum 70% identity, which includes most of the protein-coding exons, promoters, enhancers and repressors. ECRs are the preliminary step for finding TFBSs (Transcription factor binding sites) within the raw genome sequences of higher eukaryotes (large sizes of the genomes). DNA sequence motifs are short length, recurring patterns in DNA and are known to be associated with a biological function. These motifs sometimes indicate sequence specific binding sites for proteins such as nucleases and transcription factors (TF). Some sequence motifs are involved in biological processes at RNA level, such as ribosome binding, mRNA processing (splicing, editing, polyadenylation) and transcription termination. Motif identification is important at protein level for biological processes such as protein-subcellular localization, protein membrane, protein-protein interactions, identification of active site of enzyme(s) and post-translational modifications. Motif search is useful in understanding gene function, human disease, drug design, etc. Regulation of splicing in eukaryotes occurs through the coordinated action of multiple splicing factors. Sequence motifs are also useful in the study of genetic regulatory networks and regulatory program of individual genes.

Introduction

The motile bacteria show movements with the help of flagella. The motility of bacteria can be observed by hanging drop method under microscope.

Requirements

1. Bacterial culture
2. Cavity slide
3. Vaseline
4. Coverslip

Procedure

1. Place a very small drop of 24 hours old bacterial culture in the center of a coverslip.
2. Put a small amount of Vaseline at each cover of the depression side of the cavity.
3. Invert the cavity slide over the coverslip. The coverslip adheres to glass slide. When the coverslip is inverted, the hanging drop is suspended in the well.

Motivation represents the psychological force that drives individuals toward specific goals and behaviors, serving as the catalyst between intention and action. At its core, motivation encompasses the internal processes that energize, direct, and sustain human behavior over time. The term derives from the Latin word “movere,” meaning to move, which aptly captures its fundamental purpose of propelling individuals from a state of rest to purposeful activity. Contemporary organizational psychology defines motivation as the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy individual needs. The essential elements of motivation form an interconnected system that transforms latent potential into observable behavior. The first element involves needs, which represent deficiencies or imbalances that create tension within an individual. These needs can be physiological,

Motivation of staff both in private and public organizations, leads to greater effectively leading to higher productivity and better performance. Motivation is the performance or procedure of presenting an intention that leads a person to capture some accomplishment (Quratul, 2011). Veterinary institutions like other organizations also seek to achieve better performance level. This requires providing motivation as an incentive or within the veterinarian as an individual to be self-motivated. There is a good scope for veterinarians to be more committed to work. McGregor argued that management has the responsibility to ensure that the productive elements of the enterprises are organized, such as money, materials and people with the purpose of meeting economic ends. People have an inborn dislike to work and tend to avoid it whenever an opportunity arises. It is also observed that people are born selfish; indifferent to the needs of the organization; hence people’s efforts need to be directed through coercion, controlling their action and modification of their behaviors to attain organizational goals. Hence, people in the organization need to be directed to take responsibility. To achieve organizational objectives, people need to be persuaded, rewarded, coerced, controlled, directed or threatened with punishment. While another theory is opposable to it. It is believed that if vets are motivated they would reach greatest potential. As extension specialist we need to motivate our peer and farmers aiming to improve performance and increased satisfaction.

Abstract

Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. Motivation is a complex area. It’s different for different persons. Alignment of aims, purposes and values between staff, teams and organization is the most fundamental aspect of motivation. Organizational work culture and employees behavior are two important factors in taking decision on motivation techniques to be followed in the organization. Security of job, reward on better performance, importance of employee’s view in decision making, positive attitude, decisive leadership, etc bring motivation among employees. The five practices such as get to know every employee, challenge them to improve the performance, treat each employee as client for a day, establish great idea award and implement the great idea in organization activity, can improve the motivation of employees. They should be considered as resources, trusted by giving responsibility and rewarded with performance bonus for better motivation in the workplace.

3.1 Introduction
The different moulding machines are listed below.
• Thermoforming moulding
• Injection moulding
• Compression moulding
• Transfer moulding
• Extrusion moulding
• Blow moulding
• Rotational moulding
• Hydroforming
• Laminating
The melting furnaces, which feed molten metal to fill mould cavities are listed below.
• Cupola furnace
• Induction furnace
• Open hearth furnace
This chapter presents the different moulding machines and melting furnaces.
3.2 Thermoforming Moulding
To develop unique packaging solutions, thermoforming is the process of stretching a heated plastic sheet over a mould, then trimming, and assembling the design once the sheet has cooled as shown in Fig.3.1. The hot thermoplastic is stretched over the surface of the mould using the two thermoforming processes, viz. vacuum forming and pressure forming. A thermoforming machine is a sizable piece of industrial machinery that allows us to vacuum-form a plastic sheet onto an object as the sheet is being moulded. Thermoforming machines are used and benefited by a variety of businesses to efficiently package their products. The material used to produce parts by thermoforming machines is thermoforming plastic. Numerous thermoforming polymers are available for use in particular applications.

17.1 Introduction
The most important device that helps or supports the silkworms (larvae) for comfortable spinning their cocoon is called cocoonage or mountage. It determines both the quality and quantity of the cocoons. Different types of
cocoonages are used in different parts of India. In general, these are made of wood, bamboo, cardboard, plastic, grass, dry leaves, twigs, etc.
Mounting is an essential step in the rearing of silkworm. Mounting indicates the transition of silkworm from larval stage to pupal stage where it prepares to spin cocoons. Mounting is a process where fully grown (specifically 5th instar) silkworm larvae are picked and mounted in a suitable place (mountage) where it is about to spin. Mounting is a pivotal phase in silkworm rearing.
The following are the objectives of mounting:
1. To provide an ideal space for silkworm larvae to spin,
2. To ensure good quality cocoons,
3. To minimize mortality among silkworm by avoiding overcrowding,
4. To ensure a maximum silk production.

Introduction
From the tiniest insects to the largest blue whales, all species in the animal kingdom have been shown to undergo the migration. Millions of animals embark on epic journeys every year in search of food, shelter, and opportunity for mating. These animals routinely travel thousands of kilometres by land, sea, or air, which both tests and improves their endurance. Among the most striking animal migrations are those of Arctic terns. The long-distance migration of these little birds from pole to pole is well-known. They are thought to move over 40,000 kilometres (25,000 miles) a year, spending the majority of their time at sea chasing an endless summer. One of the most well-known migrations is that of the monarch butterfly, which travels across several generations. Though they are widespread throughout the United States and beyond, monarch butterflies are most known for their ability to travel 4,800 kilometres (3,000 miles) from Canada to Mexico. Millions of monarch butterflies fly south each year from their northern ranges to the oyamel fir forests near the Sierra Madre mountains, where they build massive roosts to remain warm throughout the winter. The monarchs begin their annual migration northwards in the spring, taking three to five generations to reach their goal. The migration that is the most dramatic belongs to the wildebeest. They coexist with thousands of zebras and gazelles in enormous herds that number over a million. The yearly migration of wildebeest across Tanzania and Kenya in quest of new water and grazing land is well-known. One of the most magnificent displays of nature is thought to be the migration. Animals that migrate are essential to preserving ecosystem balance and sustaining life as we know it. They distribute seeds and serve as pollinators, which support the structure and functionality of ecosystems.

ABSTRACT

The coconut eriophyid mite, Aceria guerreronis Keifer is a serious pest of coconut in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Gujarat. The mites reside underneath the perianth of nuts and feed on the soft meristematic tissues of the young nuts. Their feeding damage is evident as scars on the surface of the older nuts. The damage results in reduction in size of nut and increases labour for dehusking the nuts.

The way a chemical moves, persists, and behaves in its surroundings is known as its behaviour. A chemical’s behaviour will dictate both its residual properties and field efficacy. The behaviour of insecticides is determined by their chemical and physical characteristics as well as the interaction of environmental elements. Our capacity to comprehend and forecast how insecticides will behave in the environment will determine our ability to keep utilizing insecticides.

Important features of systemic insecticides

1. They are not susceptible to wash off by rain

2. By virtue of their movement inside plants, they can afford to protection to regions where they have not been sprayed

3. They are often been transported towards region of growth

4. Since they have very weak contact action, safe to beneficial organism.