eChapters

Soil pollution happens when we destroy the thin layer of healthy and productive soil, which covers the earth’s surface. Most of the world’s food is produced using this resource and if we don’t protect it the world’s farmers will be unable to grow enough food to support the worlds people.
 
Healthy soil depends on bacteria, fungi, and small animals (such as worms) to break down wastes in the soil and release its nutrients which help plants grow. The over use of fertilizers and pesticides can limit the ability of soil organisms to process wastes, which in turn makes the soil less productive or in the worst case scenario useless or even poisonous. 

1. Banks of rivers and canals

The banks of river and canal passing through town and villages are well suited for landscaping. Landscaping is one of the important processes for beautification and preventing the soil erosion near the bank of river and canal. With the help of landscaping, people can take advantage of pleasant scenery and natural environment. The plants themselves will objects of beauty and their reflection on the water surface is an additional attraction.

Introduction

Recently the terms “governance” and “good governance” are being increasingly used in development literature. Bad governance is being increasingly regarded as one of the root causes of all evil within our societies. Major donors and international financial institutions are increasingly basing their aid and loans on the condition that reforms that ensure “good governance” are undertaken.

Good governance is an essential complement to sound economic policies. Efficient and accountable management by the public sector and a predictable and transparent policy framework are critical to the efficiency of markets and governments, and hence to economic development. Good governance, for the World Bank, is synonymous with sound development management The Bank’s experience has shown that the programs and projects it helps finance may be technically sound, but fail to deliver anticipated results for reasons connected to the quality of government action. Legal reforms, however urgent, may come to naught if the new laws are not enforced consistently or there are severe delays in implementation. Efforts to develop privatized production and encourage market-led growth may not succeed unless investors face dear rules and institutions that reduce uncertainty about future government action.

Fish and shellfish seed rearing forms the foundation of a successful and sustainable aquaculture industry. It involves the breeding, hatching, and nurturing of fish or shellfish larvae until they reach a size suitable for stocking in grow-out systems such as ponds, tanks, or cages. This early stage of aquaculture not only determines the quality and survival rate of the final harvest but also influences the overall productivity and profitability of the sector. Economically, seed rearing requires substantial initial investment in infrastructure, broodstock procurement, and operational costs like feed, energy, and skilled manpower. However, with efficient management and species-specific best practices, it offers high returns due to growing demand for quality seed across freshwater, brackish water, and marine aquaculture systems. From a policy perspective, government interventions such as capital subsidies, training programs, and biosecurity regulations aim to improve seed quality, promote entrepreneurship, and enhance the availability of certified seed stock. Schemes under PMMSY, NFDB, and state-level fisheries departments provide financial and technical assistance to individual hatcheries, FPOs, and cooperatives. Moreover, the introduction of hatchery accreditation and seed certification frameworks is vital for ensuring uniformity, disease-free stock, and farmer trust. Thus, seed rearing is both a critical technical operation and a key economic driver in India’s evolving fisheries landscape.
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF SMALL-SCALE SEED UNITS
A cost-benefit analysis of small-scale seed units in Indian aquaculture reveals promising profitability and their significant contribution to the broader aquaculture sector. While specific data may differ across regions and practices, various studies have consistently demonstrated benefit-cost ratios (BCR) ranging between 1.67 and 3.01. These units play a vital role in improving survival rates of fish seed, facilitating acclimatization to the growing environment, and reducing transportation-related stress and costs.

In this chapter, we describe the methods of preparation of some of the buffers, most commonly used in the assay of enzymes required for plant physiological and histochemical studies.

The buffers have been arranged in an alphabetical order starting with their names. These methods are not necessarily identical with those of the original authors. It is advised that the users should re-determine the titration curves of majority of the buffers. These buffers have also been listed in Method in Enzymology, Vol. 1 (1955), pp. 138-146.

Definition: Ecotourism that involves traveling to relatively undisturbed natural areas with specified object of studying, admiring and/or enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals as well as any existing cultural aspects found in these areas.

OR A tourism which contains a visit to an ecosystem is ecotourism.

OR Ecotourism is now defined as “Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of the local people and involves interpretation and education” (TIES, 2015).

The word ecotourism has been derived from two words ‘Ecosystem’ and ‘Tourism’, together it is made Ecotourism. Green globe 21 International Ecotourism Standard has adopted Ecotourism Australia’s definition of ecotourism as “Ecologically sustainable tourism with a primary focus on experiencing natural areas that fosters environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation and conservations”.

It entails not only travelling to such ecosystems, but also helping to conserve them. It involves travel to areas of natural or ecological interest, typically under the guidance of a naturalist for the purpose of observing wildlife and learning about the environment and at the same time focusing on conservation of wildlife and environment.

1. Introduction

Coriander is a vital spice crop with a grave role in delicious food test. It is a tropical crop and cultivated as a major in Rabi season in chill free extents through the blossoming phase. Especially, all portions of the plant are comestible, but the fresh shrubberies and the desiccated seeds are the parts conventionally used in culinary. Approximately of the diverse forms of coriander are greenery, blossom and capsules. Coriander leaves are mainly ironic in vitamin A, vitamin C and vitamin K, with moderate pleased of nutritional minerals. Though seeds usually have inferior happy of vitamins, they do widely provide significant quantities of nutritional fibre, calcium, selenium, iron, magnesium and manganese. Mostly, coriander plant productivity is around one and three-fourth tonnes per acre of seed. The root is crushed and used as a condiment in useable form.

The Management tools are very useful to achieve the objectives of any extension organization. There are number of management tools, which extensively used for better personal and organizational effectiveness, such as follows: Johari window, SWOT analysis, Agro-Ecosystem analysis, PRA, Transaction Analysis, etc.

• Personal Effectiveness-Johari Window:

The personal effectiveness is very useful for success of management in any extension organization. In Extension organization, the manager or leader has to deal with human beings to obtain the objectives’ of the organization through better personal effectiveness. The basic precondition for personal effectiveness is better self-awareness but understanding one does not alone make a person effective.

The Johari Window: The simple and widely used model of self-awareness is the Johari window, developed by Joseph Luft& Harry Ingham in 1973. In this model, there are two main dimensions for understanding the self: Those aspects of a person’s behavior and style that known to him(Self) and those aspects of his behavior known to those with whom he interacts(Others). A combination of these two dimensions reveals fur areas of knowledge about the self.

1. Introduction

Jackfruit is a fruit crop that is under appreciated and neglected. The jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) is a member of the Moraceae family. India is the world’s greatest cultivator and producer of jackfruit, also known as the poor man’s fruit because it grows more in rural than metropolitan areas. It is a pretty huge tree that bears the world’s largest edible fruit. The jackfruit is a tropical fruit native to Southeast Asia. It is thought to have originated in India’s rainforests, in the Western Ghats, and is now widely farmed throughout the region’s lowlands. The leading jackfruit producers in the world include Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, Vietnam, China, the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Sri Lanka. Jackfruit can be found in East Africa, Brazil, and Caribbean nations such as Jamaica. Bangladesh’s national fruits are the jackfruit, mango, and banana.

The process for discovering new fungicides has evolved throughout time. Over the past 20 years, a number of novel fungicides with various chemical activity have been created, after the age of site-specific systemic fungicides and multisite broad-spectrum fungicides. Compared to earlier chemicals, they are utilised at considerably lower dosages, making them more ecologically friendly.The most significant of them is called strobilurin (QoI), which is derived from the wild Strobilurus tenacellus fungus. The oxazolidinediones (phaoxadone), phenoxyquinolines (quinoxifene), anilinopyrimidines (cyprodinil, pyrimethanil), and valinamide (iprovalicarb, benchocarb), manderamide (mandipropamide), and phenylpyrrole (fenpicroyl, fludioxonil) are other significant fungicides that were introduced in the last ten years to control a variety of diseases. These substances have distinct molecular structures and modes of action.

Poultry–fish integrated farming utilizes poultry droppings—especially from fully built-up litter—as a valuable input for fish culture. In this system, birds like chickens, ducks, or geese are reared in close proximity to or directly above fish ponds, allowing their excreta to either fertilize the water or serve as direct feed for fish. This integration offers multiple advantages. Poultry excreta is nutrient-dense due to the short digestive tract of birds, making it highly efficient as a low-cost fertilizer. Moreover, poultry manure is relatively low in moisture, fiber, and tannins—substances that can otherwise discolor water—thus making it suitable for aquatic environments. Poultry manure acts as both an organic and inorganic fertilizer, significantly enhancing pond productivity. In one case, fish yields of up to 670 kg/ha were achieved over three months without any supplemental feeding by using poultry manure alone. On average, each bird produces around 40 grams of manure per day. Manure from 250–300 laying hens or 150–200 broilers can yield 3–4 tons of fish annually when recycled into a one-hectare pond. The manure helps break down inedible matter into high-quality natural fish feed by stimulating microbial activity in the water and sediment. These microbes, in turn, enhance nutrient cycling and support the production of plankton— primary food sources for fish.
Fresh chicken manure typically contains:
• Nitrogen: 1.6%
• Phosphorus (P?O?): 1.5%
• Potassium (K?O): 0.9%
• Protein content: Approximately 20–30%

FINGER MILLET (Eleusine coracana)
Fungal diseases
1) Blast
Symptoms: The above ground parts (leaf, leaf sheath, stems) of the plant exihibit the symptoms. The seedlings and adult plants are affected by the pathogen. Eye-shaped spots appear on leaf and leaf sheath having dark brown margin with ashy centre. These spots coalesce to form large patches and the leaves are blighted. Affected leaves wither prematurely and the seedlings may be killed. Lesions appear on the leaf blades, leaf sheaths and culms on adult plants and cause blightening.

1.    Postharvest Losses of Fruits and Vegetables
    
2.    Minimization of Postharvest Losses
    
3.    Postharvest Management Practices
    
4.    Selection of Varieties
    
5.    Harvesting
    
6.    Sorting /Grading
    
7.    Washing
    
8.    Trimming
    
9.    Curing
    
10.     Delatexing or De-sapping
    
11.    Waxing
    
12.    Pre-cooling
    
13.    Hot Water Treatment
    
14.    Postharvest Disease Management
    
15.    Regulation of Ripening
    
16.    Sprout Inhibition
    
17.    Packaging
    
18.    Transportation
    
19.    Marketing
    
20.    Storage
    
21.    Conclusion
        
References

Definition: Ground covers are low growing plants which are useful for covering large areas in the landscape Or Ground cover refers to any plant that grows over an area of ground, used to provide protection from erosion and drought and to improve its aesthetic appearance. An ideal ground cover must be easily established.

Ground covers are living plants or non-living materials used to cover areas. In general, plant related ground covers have a creeping or prostrate growth habit and grow no taller than 60 cm. A good ground cover should be evergreen and provide a permanent covering. Effects that cannot be achieved with turf grass or other plantings are possible with ground covers. Ground covers provide variation in plant height, texture and colour.

1. Introduction

The Indian economy is heavily dependent on agriculture (employing 53 % population). Around 84 % of the holdings are less than 2 ha while approximately 67% of the farms have less than 1 ha of operational farmland (Government of India, 2013; Pandey and Suganthi, 2015). A large fraction of the farming population is mostly reliant on monsoon rains for irrigation. The condition of the farmers is found to be deteriorating year after year with the revelation that 27% of farmers did not consider farming as a profitable enterprise and 40% were ready to migrate to other avenues for employment (NSSO, 2005; Pandey and Suganthi, 2015). 

Introduction

Plant pathogens can cause significant crop loss both pre- and post-harvest. Fungicides continue to plays an important role in controlling plant diseases caused by fungal pathogens. In the last 100 years, fungicides have evolved from a few simple inorganic compounds to multiple groups of organic compounds, from contact and multisite fungicides to systemic and site specific fungicides with curative properties have evolved. The introduction of new fungicides is an integral part of sustainable disease control in staple crops. The need for new and innovative fungicides is driven by resistance management, regulatory hurdles and changing farmer needs.

The ICAR / Agriculture Universities are playing key role in addressing the gender issues in agriculture as a whole through development of women friendly technologies, efficient extension system and technical backstopping because of the fact that women are the backbone of as nearly contribute 33% of agriculture workforce and silently adorning myriad roles in agriculture sector from home maker to cultivator and even entrepreneur. Traditionally, managing the home, nurturing and grooming children have been considered to be the primary responsibility of women. Besides attending the household chores, they attend to arduous agricultural operations like sowing, transplanting, weeding, harvesting, threshing, agro processing in crop production and cutting and transportation of fodder, milking, cleaning of cattle shed and making of cow dung cakes in livestock rearing. The role of Indian rural women is increasing evidently due to migration of males to urban areas which is having profound and far-reaching effects.

Water is fundamental to every agricultural setup, and its continuous availability is especially vital for Rice–Aquaculture Farming (RAF). Before establishing an integrated system, the water source—whether a river, pond, well, or borehole— must be carefully selected. For optimal rice production, maintaining a consistent water depth of 15–20 cm is ideal. In the case of aquatic organisms, pond or trench water should be 65–70 cm deep, which ensures favorable conditions for growth in both warm and cool climates. Typically, crustaceans inhabit the bottom, while fish occupy the middle and upper water layers. Effective water and nutrient management form the foundation of a productive integrated farming system—whether it includes fish, livestock, poultry, crops, or horticulture. Water in these systems serves not just one component but is shared across units, making its quality, quantity, and timing critical. Likewise, nutrients from animal waste, pond sludge, crop residues, and wastewater must be efficiently reused to nourish plants, sustain aquatic life, and maintain soil health, all while limiting environmental losses. In fish–crop or fish–livestock integrations, nutrient-rich water from fish ponds—containing nitrogen and phosphorus from fish waste and feed—can be directed to vegetable plots or rice fields. Plants absorb these nutrients, effectively purifying the water before it recirculates to the fish units. Precise timing is essential: fish ponds should be fertilized 5–7 days before stocking to foster plankton growth, while irrigating crops with pond water must match plant nutrient needs and avoid salt accumulation. In crop–livestock systems, placing poultry or cattle sheds uphill allows gravity-fed runoff to be channeled into compost pits or directly onto fields, enriching the soil naturally. Soil moisture and nutrient levels should be monitored regularly to guide the balanced application of manures and fertilizers, minimizing leaching and preventing plant stress.

The word ‘social forestry’ was coined by J. C. Westoby and used in the ninth Commonwealth Forestry Conference at New Delhi in 1968. In India the term was first used by the National Commission on Agriculture, Government of India in 1976, to denote tree raising programmes to supply firewood, small timber and minor forest products to rural population. Prasad (1985) defined social forestry as forestry outside the conventional forests which primarily aims at providing continuous flow of goods and services for the benefit of people. This implies that the production of forest goods for fulfilling the needs of the local people is social forestry. Thus, conceptually it deals with the people to produce goods such as fuel, fodder, small timber, etc. to meet the needs of local community particularly the underprivileged section (Shah, 1988).