eChapters

Introduction

Mushrooms are very nutritious products that can be generated from lignocellulosic waste materials; and are in rich in crude fibrend protein. In fact, mushrooms also contain low fat, low calories and good vitamins. In addition, many mushrooms possess multi-functional medicinal properties. Edible mushrooms once called the “food of the gods” and still treated as a garnish or delicacy can be taken regularly as part of the human diet or be treated as healthy food or as functional food. The extractable products from medicinal mushrooms, designed to supplement the human diet not as regular food, but as the enhancement of health and fitness, can be classified into the category of dietary supplements/mushroom nutriceuticals (Chang and Buswell, 1996).

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. They occur in all living plant cells as constituents of proteins and as free acids or amides. More than 200 naturally occurring amino acids have been identified in higher plants. Around 20 different amino acids have been observed to be incorporated into proteins. They have two functional groups, an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxylic group(-COOH). Both these groups are attached to the a carbon atom only. Amino acids with this structure are called a amino acids or 2-aminoacids. The unique characteristics of the 20 amino acids are due to the side chain (R), which can be an alkyl, hydroxyl, thiol, amino, sulphide, aromatic, or heterocyclic group.

Amino acids have the general formula, R-CH(NH₂)-COOH. The R represents a side chain. If R=H, the simplest amino acid glycine (NH₂ -CH₂ –COOH) results. Amino acids are alpha (a ) amino carboxylic acids. The carbon atom is tetrahedral in shape. The various groups attached to it are placed in different positions. Since the valence of the carbon atom is four, four groups can be attached to the carbon atom. Based on the groups attached to the carbon atom it may be of two types.

There is no rapid direct test to determine fertility of semen sample. During freezing and thawing of semen 20-80% of the spermatozoa become immotile or die. In addition to this, there may be damage to spermatozoa by disintegration of sperm cell membrane and acrosome leading to loss of intracellular enzymes.   The only reliable method to evaluate the semen is to inseminate a cow and get a calf at the end of gestation period.  Now-a-days new methods have been developed for in-vitro assessment of fertility of spermatozoa.  Some of these methods are exhaustive, time consuming, need for a full fledged analysis and difficult under field conditions.

This chapter provides an insight into the genotypic and phenotypic correlations between plant traits. It incorporates the study of genotypic and phenotypic path analysis and the understanding of genetic variability, all illustrated through practical examples in R, relevant to plant breeding research.

Path Analysis

Path analysis explains not only the direct impact of one character on another but also indirect effects mediated through other variables in the system. The approach is similar to the analysis of variance and is sometimes referred to as the analysis of correlation coefficients. A notable feature of path coefficients is that they are standardized partial regression coefficients, devoid of units. This standardization allows for the direct effects of different variables to be compared and ranked based on their magnitude. This approach was first applied in plant studies by Dewey and Lu in 1959, particularly to examine the factors influencing seed yield.

Path Coefficients

In the computation of path coefficients, a path diagram is translated into a series of simultaneous equations. These equations reveal the direct and indirect contributions of causal variables to the outcome. For example, in the field of plant breeding: consider the yield of forage (Y) being influenced by different variables. These could include the leaf length (X1), leaf width (X2), and number of leaves per plant (X3).

The future of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) presents a complex and multifaceted landscape, intertwining scientific innovation, regulatory challenges, environmental considerations, and societal acceptance. This article explores the potential advancements in GMO technology, including enhanced nutritional content, increased crop yields, and resistance to pests and diseases. It also examines the ethical and ecological implications, such as gene flow to non-GMO species and the potential impacts on biodiversity. Regulatory frameworks and public perception are discussed, highlighting the need for transparent communication and robust safety assessments. Ultimately, the future of GMOs will depend on a balanced approach that addresses both the opportunities and challenges, ensuring that this technology can contribute to sustainable agriculture and food security in a responsible manner.

GPCRs are integral membrane proteins that contain seven transmembrane (TM) α-helices, with a short cytoplasmic Helix 8 interconnected to the TM7 and the cytoplasmic C terminal. The amino terminal is extracellularly disposed.

The 7 TM helices are interconnected by 3 extracellular and 3 intracellular loops. On the extracellular side between TM3 and TM4 is located a conserved disulphide bond. GPCRs being allosteric proteins, agonist binding at one site that is accessed from the extracellular space and termed the orthosteric site, promotes allosteric binding to another partner, a heterotrimeric G protein at the cytoplasmic side. Agonist binding not only promotes binding of the receptor to a G protein, but the affinity of the agonist for the receptor is increased by the G protein.

Gladiolus is a genus comprising around 260 species of perennial flowering plants in the iris family (Iridaceae). Commonly known as "sword lilies," the name derives from their long, blade-like leaves—gladius being the Latin word for "sword." These plants grow from underground storage organs called corms and feature tall, unbranched stems that bear vibrant, trumpet-shaped flowers arranged in a single-sided spike. Their striking appearance makes them highly valued both in gardens and as cut flowers.
Most gladiolus species are native to sub-Saharan Africa, particularly South Africa, though some are also found in Europe and Asia. The flowers come in a wide variety of colors, forms, and often display intricate patterns or ruffled edges. Each flower is bisexual and sits between green bracts, with its tepals forming a characteristic funnel-shaped corolla. Known for their bold inflorescences and extended vase life, gladiolus flowers are a popular choice in floral design and landscaping worldwide

Air Constantly moves from place to place due to pressure differences which are caused by difference in temperature.

Wind has been defined as air in horizontal motion. According to Byers, “The wind is simply air in motion, usually measured only in its horizontal component”. According to Trewaitha, “Wind is simply air moving in a direction which is essentially parallel with the Earth’s surface.

There are two types of movement of wind in the atmosphere.

1. Horizontal movement

2. Vertical movement (Currents)

The primary wind circulation in Northern and Southern hemispheres is seen in figure on page 51.

Pollination

Pollination is the act of transfer of pollen from the male reproductive organ of a plant to the female reproductive organ of same or another plant.

Pollination is of two types

5.1 Self Pollination

It is the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of the same flower from where the anthers have been generated. Thus, self pollination happens to be denominated as autogamy where auto means “same” and gamy means “union”. Obviously, self pollination is found in bisexual flowers. But self pollination also occurs when pollen is transferred from one bisexual flower to the stigma of another bisexual flower of the same plant. This kind of autogamy is known as geitonogamy. So, self pollination has to be defined keeping the parent plant on the main focus not the flower. If genetical consequences are considered, self pollination promotes the occurance of purelines or homozygotes. Self pollinating species developed themselves evolutionary fit due to homozygous balance and do not exhibit significant inbreeding depression.

Objective

1. To know the different types of fertilizer application methods applied in spices and condiments.

Methods of fertilizer application: The different methods of fertilizer application are as follows:

a) Broadcasting

1. It refers to spreading fertilizers uniformly all over the field.
2. Suitable for crops with dense stand, the plant roots permeate the whole volume of the soil, large doses of fertilizers are applied and insoluble phosphatic fertilizers such as rock phosphate are used.

Broadcasting of fertilizers is of two types

1. Broadcasting at sowing or planting (Basal application): The main objectives of broadcasting the fertilizers at sowing time are to uniformly distribute the fertilizer over the entire field and to mix it with soil.

3.1 Introduction

One of the most important functions to the AAS units is to widely disseminate the advisory bulletins among the user community. A unit cannot be considered operational unless its bulletins are reaching the target masses. The dissemination is one way communication which is broadly speaking the process by which human beings share information, knowledge, experience, ideas and motivation. 

There is a high demand for arable land to meet food demand and end malnutrition due to the growth of megacities and the global urban population. To enhance yield per unit area, conventional agricultural practises result in agricultural intensification and land clearing for crop cultivation. It has been established that these behaviours have a negative effect on the ecosystem, including soil and water contamination. It is crucial to take into account the application of vertical farming technology which makes use of both horizontal and vertical space and utilises nutrients, water and time (off-season production with artificial illumination) more efficiently to create a larger yield per unit volume of area than conventional outdoor farming. Since microgreens are rich in phytonutrients and are easily harvested, it is being thought of to grow them utilising cutting-edge vertical farming technology. Forest area being turned over to agriculture causes deforestation, the depletion of natural resources like groundwater, loss of biodiversity due to the destruction of habitats, increased soil erosion and greenhouse gas emissions.

Natural nutrient management in India marks a transition from synthetic fertilizers to sustainable, eco-friendly approaches that focus on improving soil fertility, crop yield, and environmental integrity. Rooted in traditional Indian agricultural wisdom, these practices are regaining importance due to their compatibility with natural farming principles, minimal reliance on external inputs, and enhancement of soil microbial activity.
A key method is the use of Jeevamrut, a fermented culture made using cow dung, cow urine, jaggery, pulse flour, and soil from field bunds. This mixture significantly boosts microbial activity in the soil, facilitating nutrient availability and decomposition of organic matter. It is applied directly to the soil or as a foliar spray and is known for improving nitrogen fixation and phosphorus release.
Ghanjeevamrut, a dry, solid variant of Jeevamrut, is used as a base application before sowing. It delivers a slow release of nutrients and is ideal for areas facing water shortages or crops requiring prolonged nourishment.
Panchagavya, another traditional bio-input, is a blend of five cow-derived products—milk, curd, ghee, urine, and dung—alongside banana, coconut water, jaggery, and water. Used mainly as a growth promoter, Panchagavya enhances germination, root development, and crop immunity, and is often applied as a foliar spray.
Green manuring using legumes such as sunhemp, dhaincha, and cowpea contributes significantly by adding organic nitrogen to the soil. These crops also improve soil aeration, structure, and moisture retention when incorporated into the soil.

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum spp.), popularly known as “mum” or “guldaudi”, is a major commercial ornamental plant grown for cut flowers, loose flowers, and garden display. Belonging to the family Asteraceae, it is valued for its vibrant colors, diverse flower shapes, and long vase life. Chrysanthemum is attacked by several insect and mite pests, affecting both foliage and floral quality, leading to reduced aesthetic and commercial value.
Distribution: Widely distributed in India wherever chrysanthemum and sunflower are grown.
Biology: The eggs are laid singly on the upper surface of leaves, obliquely inserted into the tissue, with opercula appearing as whitish or brown dots. The incubation period for the eggs lasts about 5 to 7 weeks. Following hatching, the nymphs undergo hemimetabolous development (no true pupal stage). The nymphal period spans 2 to 3 weeks, during which the nymphs moult five times before reaching adulthood. Adult insects are approximately 4 mm long, with blackish bodies and lace-like transparent wings (Rizkawati et al., 2023).

Cloud has been defined as a visible aggregation of minute water droplets and / or ice particles in the air, usually above the ground level.

CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUDS

Though confusion apparently arises from the number of kinds or species, the genera seems reasonably clear out, if we are able to recognize their main characteristics.

Clouds are usually classified according to their height and appearance. For convenience, we list them in descending order. High clouds, middle clouds and low clouds are some forms do not fit in any of these categories. But fortunately their particular characteristics make them easily identifiable as vertical development clouds. We must exercise some caution in studying on height. There is some seasonal as well as latitudinal variation and there is some overlapping from time to time. However, the appearance of clouds is quite distinctive for each height category.

It is defined as the reaction of living tissue to injury which begins following a sub-lethal injury to tissues and ends with complete healing. The purpose of inflammation is to destroy and remove the irritant and to repair the damaged tissue. 

Causes
    1.    Pathogenic organisms: Bacteria, virus, fungi, protozan and parasites.
    2.    Chemical poisons: Acid and alkalies. 
    3.    Mechanical or thermal injuries. 
    4.    Immune reaction: Antigen antibody reaction.

NEW CELLS ARE PRODUCED BY DIVISION OF PREVIOUSLY EXISTING CELLS

All cells come from previously existing cells

To make a new cell identical to itself a cell must perform 4 tasks:

It must grow and make additional copies of all its organelles, enzymes, etc..

It must duplicate its DNA

It must accurately separate the DNA into 2 units, so that each cell gets a full set

It must divide into 2 cells (cytokinesis)

Horticultural plants are grown for their produce like fruit, vegetable, flower, medicinal component, spices etc. Therefore, these plants should be managed in such a way that human desires for the purpose of growing them are fully satisfied in terms of quality and quantity of produce. This demands direct manipulation of plant growth itself or plant environment through various inputs. In manipulation of plant development, training and pruning are important for which our knowledge about plant development and its phenology has to be complete. These practices are important in fruit crops.