eChapters

Properties

1. Bacteroides, Dichelobacter and Fusobacterium are major gram negative anaerobes isolated from human and animals. Other gram negative anaerobes are listed below (Table-1).

2. The bacteria are tolerant to oxygen in comparison to strict anaerobes. The bacteria do not die after oxygen exposure.

3. The bacteria naturally inhabit the intestine and mucosal surfaces of human and animals. Majority of them are opportunistic pathogens. Often they cause mixed bacterial infection along with aerobes. The aerobes remove oxygen and create an anaerobic condition favourable for their growth. The aerobes may also supply other growth requirements. For e.g. Porphyromonas asaccharolytica requires vitamin K for its growth, supplied by another aerobic bacterium, not the host.

4.1 Introduction

The livestock/poultry have great capability for climatic adaptation and acclimatization. However in an open environmental condition their overall well-being and efficiency depends on day-to- day weather conditions. While certain breeds of livestock and poultry are considerably flexible to adjust themselves with the varying weather conditions, the others may have little adjustability. This has led to the development of weather/climate based livestock/ poultry management practices which include the general care. Nutrition and health managements for optimizing conditions for best yield in respect of milk, meat, eggs, wool, load carrying capacity etc. have been properly documented. 

The agricultural sector is undergoing a significant transformation, driven by the advent of digital technologies and smart farming practices. This article explores the concept of smart farming, which leverages advanced technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), big data analytics, and robotics to enhance agricultural productivity, sustainability, and efficiency. It delves into the various components of smart farming, including precision agriculture, smart irrigation systems, and automated machinery. The article also examines the benefits and challenges associated with the digital transformation of agriculture, including economic impacts, environmental considerations, and the role of policy and regulation. Through case studies and real-world examples, the article highlights how smart farming is reshaping the agricultural landscape and paving the way for a more sustainable and food-secure future.

Introduction
Generally, muscles and offals obtained from animals feeding on grass and various other cultivated crops are regarded as meat. Apart from the meat obtained from the cattle, sheep, goat, pig and poultry, in many countries particularly Denmark, Belgium, Holland and Germany, horse meat is also consumed (hippophasia) as normal meat. Kangaroos are slaughtered for meat in Australia whereas capybara a large semi-aquatic vegetarian rodent, is used in South America as of one of the meat source. Dog meat (fragrant) is relished (Kinophasia) in few cultures such as South Korea, China, Vietnam and few north eastern states of India.
In many parts of the world including Indian subcontinent, buffalo meat (Bubalus bubalis), also known as water buffalo or arna, is quite popular owing to its tenderness, leanness and low cholesterol qualities. It is distributed in many countries around the world such as India (largest population), Pakistan, China, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Philippines, Hungary, Italy and France etc. Bison (Bison bison) from North America is also called buffalo but they are separate species of the order Bovidae. Rabbits are also source of meat having higher growth rate and better feed conversion ratio (2:1). Elands are another meat source which are raised in Africa and Russia for meat purpose.
Meat is quite high in protein content but the presence of saturated fat is perceived negatively due to its association in various cardiovascular diseases, diabetes etc. Efforts are made to produce lean meat having higher content of unsaturated fatty acids and to reduce the ω-6 to ω -3 fatty acids ratio.

Abstract

This paper illustrates the summary of work by different groups on the potential for agribusiness and marketing research by agricultural economists over the past decade. Methodology to establish research priorities in agribusiness and marketing are reviewed. This review leads to a consideration of the agribusiness research issues including the funding sources, identifying users of agribusiness research, data needs, and limitations of agribusiness research programs. This paper also presents a potpourri of  suggested research initiatives in agribusiness research for agricultural economists. Research in these areas may be difficult for a number of reasons including, decreased reliance on economic theory as the soleparadigm, providing competitive advantage to a single agribusiness firm while balancing public and private needs, funding sources, and data confidentiality. Recommendations for outlets for academic research are presented.

The present experiment entitled, “Protected Nutrient Technology for Crossbred Cattle” was conducted at Research Cum Development Project on Cattle, Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairy Science, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri Dist. Ahmednagar, India located at 19o 23’ 0" N and 74o 39’ 0" E at an altitude of 511 mtr. Minimum and maximum ambient temperature range from 10 to 20^ºC in winter and 30 to 40°C in summer with annual rainfall of 561.6 mm

Introduction

Land serves as storage for water and nutrients for plants and other living organisms, but the land resources are limited. India has about 18% of world’s population and 15% of livestock population to be supported from only 2% geographical area and 1.5% of forest and pasture lands (Rao et al., 2015). The per capita availability of agricultural land has declined from 0.48 hectare in 1951 to 0.16 hectare in 1991 and is likely to decline further to 0.08 hectare in 2035. This decline in per capita land availability in the country is mostly on account of rising population (GOI, 2010). 

Objective of the conservation of forage is to preserve as much as of the crop nutrient as possible. However, during ensilage loss of nutrients occurs. There are five sources of loss. Theses are:
 
    (a)    Field losses 
    (b)    Oxidation or respiration losses 
     (c)    Fermentation losses
    (d)    Effluent losses 
    (f)    Aerobic deterioration

Introduction

Indiscriminate use of acaricides not only causes the development of resistance in phytophagous mites but are also harmful to their natural enemies, therefore, poses a serious problem of pest resurgence. Hence, worldwide attention has been focused to utilize the natural biocontrol agents and minimize the use of chemical pesticides for the control of mite pests in agriculture with a view to develop a suitable IPM strategy. Among natural enemies of phytophagous mites, predatory mites have been found to be most effective and efficient tool in IPM programme because of the fact that many of these are not only abundantly available in nature but are also voracious feeders and have proven ability to suppress the pest mite population below economic injury level. Beside this, predatory mite can locate, run and catch hold of the pest mites even the pest mite is hiding in rolled leaves, under webs or even in the galls or erinium, etc. Some of the predatory mites require very low population of pest mites as prey, for their survival and multiplication, which is an added advantage for potential predation. Some predatory mites such as Typhlodromus pyri have good synchronization with the prey mite, Panonychus ulmi as, both hibernate and remain active in orchards.

Answer the followings
    Q.1.    What is mastitis?
    Ans.    It may be defined as inflammation of mammary parenchyma and characterized by physiochemical changes in the milk and pathological changes of the glandular tissue.
    Q.2.    What are the cardinal changes of milk and udder in mastitis?
    Ans.    Changes of milk includes discoloration, presence of clot, and presence of huge leukocytes whereas, mammary gland becomes hot painful swelling and induration.
    Q.3.    What is sub clinical mastitis?
    Ans.    In subclinical mastitis, normally mammary gland is normal by physical examination; however, cellular constitution only indicates presence of mastitis (i.e. increased somatic cell count).
    Q.4.    What is the basis of diagnosis of sub clinical mastitis?
    Ans.    Diagnosis sub clinical mastitis depends largely on indirect tests which are related to leukocyte content of milk.

SEX IS VERY COSTLY

Large amounts of energy required to find a mate and do the mating: specialized structures and behavior required

Intimate contact provides route for infection by parasites (AIDS, syphillis, etc.)

Genetic costs: in sex you pass on only half your genes to your children

Males are an expensive luxury- in most species they contribute little to rearing offspring

But There are Some Advantages

More genetic diversity: more potential for survival of species when environmental conditions change

Shuffling of genes in meiosis (random separation of homologous chromosomes)

Crossing-over in meiosis (see below)

Fertilization (genes from 2 individuals brought together)

ABSTRACT

Recognizing the need to apply plant tissue culture tools for generating planting materials of important spice crops especially vanilla, the Spices Board started Biotech Production Unit at its head quarters building at Kochi with an annual production potential of 8 lakhs plantlets. Complete tissue culture protocols were developed and scaled up for large scale production of vanilla and other spices viz. large cardamom, small cardamom and tree spices. The laboratory is equipped with all modern facilities and is established in an area of about 2000 sft. Department of Biotechnology, Govt. of India also participated in the venture by sanctioning a project entitled “Regional centre for large scale production of tissue culture plantlets of vanilla and other spices” with a financial out lay of Rs 95 lakhs equally shared by DBT, New Delhi and Spices Board, Cochin.

At present there is a stock of over 3.00 lakh vanilla cultures in the lab and already 1.25 lakh plant lets were sent for hardening. The Spices Board, in coll aboration with “Kudumbashree”, a poverty eradication mission of Govt. of Kerala, extend short term training in tissue culture techniques to undergraduates from ‘Below Poverty Line’ (BPL) families and engage them as long term trainees in the Biotech Production Unit. The Board also coordinates and extends support to Kudumbashree members for, establishing and maintaining hardening facilities for TC plantlets thus providing means for empowering women from BPL families.

Introduction

Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton) belongs to the Ericaceae family and is native to North America. Cranberries are also known by various other names, including American cranberry, bearberry, and lingonberry. The plant has a diploid chromosome number of 24 and grows in acidic, nutrient-poor soils in wetlands and bogs. It is an important commercial crop worldwide due to its high nutritional value, antioxidant properties, and health benefits. Cranberries are primarily consumed as juice, dried fruit, or in the form of sauces and jellies. They are a rich source of vitamins C and E, dietary fiber, anthocyanins and essential minerals such as potassium, manganese, and copper. The fruit is also used in the pharmaceutical industries due to its anti inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anti aging properties (Santos et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2017).

The composition of cranberries is quite remarkable, with high levels of antioxidants, including phenolic compounds such as flavonols, anthocyanins, and proanthocyanidins. These compounds are responsible for the fruit’s vibrant red color and are thought to provide many of the health benefits associated with cranberries. Cranberries are an important crop in the United States, Canada, and Chile, with significant economic value. They are primarily consumed as juice or in processed forms, such as sauces and jams. Cranberries are also used in the production of dietary supplements and cosmetics.

Introduction

In the face of a burgeoning global population, the imperative for robust advancements in food production, especially within the aquaculture industry, is more pressing than ever. The expansion of this industry necessitates a nuanced consideration of environmental, economic, and social factors underpinned by a commitment to sustainable development. However, the intensification of aquaculture, particularly in coastal regions, poses long-term environmental risks due to increased organic matter in water, demanding innovative solutions.

In recent decades, recirculating systems have emerged as a step toward sustainable aquaculture, offering an effective approach to control wastewater. High operating costs have hindered widespread adoption despite their potential, particularly in developing countries. Enter the need for a game-changing, cost effective, and environmentally friendly technology that resonates with farmers on a large scale. This is where the Biofloc system, or Biofloc technology (BFT), takes center stage. A beacon of cost-effectiveness, sustainability, and environmental friendliness, the BFT reduces water exchange to almost zero and slashes artificial feeding ratios. This revolutionary system enhances water quality and generates microbial protein for aquatic species, addressing critical challenges faced by the aquaculture industry.

Answer the followings
    Q.1.    What is the relative incidence of  Streptococcus agalactiae, other Streptococci and Staphylococcus aureus
    Ans.    1:1: 2
    Q.2.    What are sources of contagious pathogen for mastitis?
    Ans.    Udder surfaces of infected quarters 
    Q.3.    What are sources of environmental pathogen for mastitis?
    Ans.    Bedding of cow’s environment
    Q.4.    When animal get infection from environmental pathogen?
    Ans.    Animal get infection at any time during the life such as milking time, between milking, during dry period and prior to first calving.
    Q.8.    What is the probable period of new infection from environmental pathogen?
    Ans.    Early part of dry period and first two months of lactation.
    Q.9.    What is the relation of growth of Corynebacterium bovis in milk and lactation?

Ice bank cooling: Storing of fruit and vegetable in storage chamber with positive ventilation and system countries where ice formation is allowed during night time (as electricity cost of night is less as compared to the day time). Melting of ice occurs during day time and with proper air circulation by means of ventilation process, approximately 0.5-1⁰C temperature with 90% RH in the chamber is maintained. Ice Bank Cooler / Air forced cooler leads to desiccation of the produce (Plate 139). So use forced air high humidity cooler and these are known as Ice Bank Cooler. Ice bank coolers are useful for strawberry.

A fair number of practical breeding experiments were done in ancient times

People knew there was a connection between sex and reproduction

The idea had developed that “like begets like”

By selecting certain plants and animals and breeding them many domestic varieties of plants and animals had been developed

Example: corn was developed from a wild grass in Mexico and Central America, probably about 5000 years ago

149 of the top 150 plant crops were domesticated by primitive man

ABSTRACT

Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedtsch., (Family: Apiaceae) is an important plant of temperate regions and its seeds are used as carminative substance in various food recipes. The seeds of the species act as a good source of economy to the hilly and mountain people. As the species is restricted in its habitat, therefore, it requires mass cultivation practices. Many attempts are already made to cultivate species near to its natural habitat. In recent years some efforts have been done to domesticate this plant in certain areas of India like Shong area in Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh, India, but the cultivation remained very limited. Therefore, in addition to its collection from the wild sources the species needs more scientific intervention in agriculture sector. This species has typical Palaeo-Mediterranean distribution. In India the species is distributed in wild only in North West Himalaya (J&K, HP and UK) which makes its ocurrence rarity in the country. The species restricted its distribution between 1850-3100 meters above mean sea level. Phylogenetically the species is near to Carum carvi L., therefore, C. carvi is the potential adulterant of B. persicum.

ABSTRACT

Astudy was undertaken to evaluate the performance of tissue culture derived plants vis a vis open pollinated seedlings of cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton). A total of 102.5 ha (units) covering 50 ha in Kerala, 37.5 ha in Karnataka and 15 ha in Tamil Nadu was selected for the present study out of which each demonstration plot (unit) had an area of one hectare in which 80% of the plants are tissue cultured and 20% are open pollinated. Elite cardamom clones were subjected to in vitro multiplication and their respective open pollinated seedlings were compared. The planting was initiated in 1989 and completed with 1991 in all the zones identified. Plant growth characters such as number of tillers, number of bearing tillers and panicles per clump were recorded and compared. The yield was recorded in 1993-94 and 94-95 seasons after its stabilisation. Results indicated that tissue culture plants performed better compared to open pollinated seedlings with regard to growth attributes and yield irrespective of the seasons and zones. In Kerala region tissue culture plants exhibited a yield increase of 24.3 and 36% over open pollinated seedlings for the 1989 and 1990 plantings respectively. Similar trend was observed in Tamil Nadu for 1989 and 1990 planting where the percentage increase in yield became 130 and 21 respectively. In Kerala, the yield performance of tissue culture plants and open pollinated seedlings was on par during 1990 planting but in the subsequent year (1991) tissue culture plants showed 24% increase in yield compared to their respective open pollinated ones. Further, the study enabled to identify cardamom clones suited to in various zones of the cardamom tract. Accordingly 14 clones with a yield potential of over 750 kg/ha under moderate management were identified and this indicated that cardamom clones are highly location specific in their performance.

Introduction

Plant analysis can be defined as the quantitative determination of the concentration of an element or extractable fraction of an element in a sample from a particular part or portion of a crop. From the nutritional standpoint, plant analysis is based on the principle that the concentration of a nutrient within the plant is an integral value of all the factors that have interacted to it. Plant analysis is used as an index of available nutrient element supply. Plant growth or yield are compared with the elemental concentrations contained in the dry matter of the entire plant or plant structures such as leaves, petioles, fruit or grain sampled at different times during their development. Plant analysis gives the overall picture of the nutrient levels within the plant at the time the nutrient was taken. The use of plant analysis is based on the principle that the nutrient level present is as a result of all factors affecting the growth of the plant.

Plant analysis involves the determination of nutrient concentration in diagnostic plant part(s) sampled at recommended growth stage(s) of the crop. In a way plant analysis complements soil analysis. There are reliable sampling criteria and procedures for most of the world’s commercial crops.

Importance

Plant analysis assesses nutrient uptake while soil testing predicts nutrient availability. The two tests are complementary to each other as crop management tools. Plant analysis will detect unseen hidden hunger and confirm visual deficiency symptoms. Toxic levels may also be detected. If it is done early, plant analysis will allow a corrective fertilizer application in the same season.