eChapters

Abstract

The potent greenhouse gases N₂O and CO₂ are relased by aerobic/anaerobic respiring bacteria, archaea, fungi and protists in increasing amounts from converting virgin rain forest and permafrost soils, over fertilized agricultural fields and grasslands including animal husbandry, compost/waste water treatment plants, oceans, savannahs, forests of the temperate climate zones in annual amounts of 0.5 to 4.2 terragrams (Tg) N₂O-N into the atmosphere after autotrophic and hetreotrophic NH₄⁺ to NO₃- oxidation. With estimated 0.25% industries contribute to the annual atmospheric N₂O-N concentration increase.

NAD/NADP (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide/ Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate): Coenzymes acting as carriers of hydrogen atoms and electrons in some oxidoreductases catalyzed reactions. Their oxidized and reduced states are NAD⁺ and NADH + H⁺/NADP⁺ and NADPH + H⁺

Nanotechnology: Nanotechnology refers broadly to a field of applied science and technology whose unifying theme is the control of matter on the molecular level in scales smaller than 1 micrometre, normally 1 to 100 nanometers, and the fabrication of devices within that size range.

Nastic movement: Nastic movements are non-directional responses to stimuli (e.g., temperature, humidity, light irradiance), and are usually associated with plants. The movement can be due to changes in turgor or changes in growth. An example of such a response is opening and closing of flowers. There are several types of nastic movements such as Epinasty, Hyponasty, Photonasty, Nyctinasty, Chemonasty, Hydronasty, Thermonasty, Geonasty/Gravinasty, Thigmonasty, etc.

Naïve panel: It refers to the sensory evaluation panel that has not been trained specifically regarding the product evaluation being undertaken in the study. It is untrained panel of sensory evaluation.

Nano technology: It is the art of manipulating materials on an atomic or molecular scale to build microscopic devices. The word “nano’ meaning ‘dwarf” in Greek language refers to dimension / magnitude of the material / particle in the order of 10-9. Nanotechnology is nothing but manipulating of particles into very small particles called nano-particles. These particles have dimensions in the scale of nano-meter and used to design / build materials and devices. Nanotechnology has been provisionally defined as relating to materials, systems and processes which operate at a scale of 100 nanometers (nm) or less. It will allow many things to be manufactured at low cost and with no pollution. The concept of nanotechnology was first given by Nobel Laureate physicist Richard P. Feynman in Southern California in 1959.

NaNO2 : Pink colour of cured meat is preserved by NaNO2 . It is effective against Cl. Botulinosm

Nanogram: It is one billionth of a gram.

Nano-materials: Nano material have been defined as having one or more dimensions measuring 100 nm or less, or having at least one dimension at this scale which affects the materials behavior and properties (Plate 438).

Narratives: The narrative technique of gathering information has even less structure than the focus group. Narratives have almost no predetermined contents except that the research worker seeks to hear the personal experience of a person with an incident or happening in his life. Essentially, the person tells his story about an incident or situation and the research worker, listen passively, occasionally encouraging the respondent.

Nandina domestica Thunb. (Berberidaceae): Eng.- Chinese Sacred Bamboo [NI]. An evergreen or semi-evergreen ornamental shrub with upright shoots. Leaves mostly bi-to tripinnate, rich green purple on fall. Flowers star shaped, white with large yellow anthers, in erect panicles followed by long lasting, spherical bright red fruit.

Introduction

The ICAR-National Academy of Agricultural Research Management (NAARM) was established in Hyderabad in 1976 by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. Its primary mission is to enhance the capacities of agricultural research, education, and extension education systems, and to offer policy advocacy for the National Agricultural Research and Education System (NARES). To achieve this, NAARM conducts various capacity-building programs for researchers, educators, extension personnel, scholars, and other stakeholders within NARES. The Academy aims to boost both individual and institutional capabilities for innovation within NARES. Given the critical role of agricultural research in the nation’s food security and economic development, leadership, governance, and innovation are essential for transforming NARES into a more diverse and innovative system. With this in mind, NAARM has crafted its vision, mission, and mandate.

Farm Innovation and Promotion Fund (FIPF)
Introduction
Many innovative initiatives are being attempted by various agencies in the Held of Agriculture and allied sectors. To support these innovations, NABARD has decided to set up a fund titled “Farm Innovation and Promotion Fund” (FIPF).

Initial Corpus of Fund
Rs. 5 crore (2004-05).

Objectives of the Fund
The objective of the Fund is to support the activities listed below : 
        To demonstrate bankability of new concepts in farm sector
        To develop prototypes for further commercial development
        To support activities connected with market survey for potential assessment/market acceptability for new agri/rural products

NAIRU : The non-accelerating-inflation rate of unemployment (see natural rate rate of natureal rate of unemployment).

Nash equilibrium : An important concept in game theory, a Nash equilibrium occurs when each player is pursuing their best possible strategy in the full knowledge of the strategies of all other players. Once a Nash equilibrium is reached, nobody has any incentive to change their strategy. It is named after John Nash, a mathematician and Nobel prize-winning economist.

Nation building : Creating a country that works out of one that does not - because the old order has collapsed (as in the former Soviet Union), or been destroyed by war (Iraq), or never really functioned in the first place (Afghanistan). To transform a failed country can involve establishing order through the rule of law and creating legitimate government and other effective social institutions, as well as a credible currency and a functioning market economy. Nation building is rarely easy, and often fiendishly difficult, especially where there are deep ethnic, religious or political divisions in the population or the country has no history of ever functioning effectively. Outside expertise, such as from the world bank, and money (as in, most famouly, the marshall plan) can help, but they are no guarantee of success.

The term nanotechnology was coined by Prof Taniguchi, Japan in 1974 during conference of the Japanese Society of Precision Engineering. Nano technology is a domain of scientific activity oriented on synthesis, characterization, application of devices and materials and technical systems which functions at nano structures having 1 to 100 nm size. Prof R. Feynman American Physicist and Nobel Prize winner was the first person pointed out the importance and promising outlook for nano particles during his lecture entitled “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom. An Invitation to Enter a New Field of Physics,” delivered on December 29th 1959 at the California Institute of Technology. He pointed out that “... when we have some control of the arrangement of things on a small scale we will get an enormously greater range of possible properties that substances can have, and of different things that we can do ... The problems of chemistry and biologycan be greatly helped if our ability to see what we are doing, and to do things on an atomic level, is ultimately developed”. Later scientists realized the potential of nano particulate materials during the last decade has tremendous advancement in nano research. Governments and private sectors of the world invested huge sums to reap the benefits from novel applications of nano materials.

Nanotechnology: The principle of nano technology is that the material with known properties and functions at normal size exhibit different behaviour and functions at nano scale. By decreasing the size of the material the surface area per unit material will increase enormously and this helps greater interactions with reactive sites. Nano technology implied that the process of fabricating and/ or controlling the material sized between 1 to 100nm.

Introduction

Fungicides are biocidal chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill or inhibit fungi or fungal spores. An insecticide is a pesticide used against insects. Pyrethroids are widely used insecticides in agriculture as they control pests and diseases effectively in plants. Because of their low biodegradability and high persistence, they are extensively found in environmental samples such as air, water, soil, sediments, food and biological tissues [1-4]. Moreover, these chemicals induce cancer and act as endocrine disrupters in several organisms due to their high degree of toxicity. Although the use of most pyrethroids has been prohibited or limited in developed countries, they are used in many developing and under developed countries for controlling of pests and insecticides [5-8].

Abstract

Agriculture provides food, feed, fiber and many other desired products for survival of human beings in the world. Modern agriculture emphasizes on use of hybrid seeds, high yielding varieties and chemical fertilizer to increase the crop productivity within a short period. Indiscriminate use of synthetic fertilizers has led to environmental pollution and deterioration of soil health, which results in depletion of essential plant nutrients and organic matter in soil. On account of the environmental hazard and soil infertility, biofertilizer concept was developed. Biofertilizer are natural fertilizers including bacteria, fungi and algae alone or in combination that augment availability of nutrients to the plants. However, due to its short shelf life period it may not be a suitable candidate for modern agriculture. Thus, it is the need of the hour to develop an economic and eco-friendly nano-biofertilizer for sustainable agriculture.

Introduction

Food packaging is a critical technology addressing the ever-increasing demands for convenience, freshness, ease, shelf-life, safety and security of food products.
 
The main purpose of food packaging is to protect the food from microbial and chemical contamination, oxygen, water vapor and light. The type of packaging used therefore has an important role in determining the shelf-life of the food. Nanotechnology can be intervened to achieve the purpose of food packaging and it will become one of the most powerful forces for innovation in the food packaging industry.

Introduction

Weeds are unwanted plants in agricultural production causing huge losses in crop production system particularly rainfed agriculture. Of the total estimated losses caused in crop production by pests, diseases and weeds in the world, the weeds alone are responsible for one-third of it. Weeds interfere with crop growth and cause an yield loss to the tune of 10% of crop production which amounts to a total loss of about 20 million MT of food grains, valued at over Rs.10,000 crores, at current prices in India. Besides, losses of similar magnitude are experienced in vegetable, fruit and plantation crops. The losses inflicted on biodiversity, environment and health are considerable and have not been quantified scientifically.

Introduction
 
Maintaining and restoring the quality of air, water and soil is one of the great challenges of our time. Most countries face serious environmental problems, such as the availability of drinking water, the treatment of waste and wastewater, air pollution and the contamination of soil and groundwater. There are two main approaches to these problems: the first is to control pollution at source to minimize or eliminate waste production or harmful emissions; the second is to remedy the pollutants that accumulate in the environment. Considering the enormous scale of soil and groundwater contamination, the complexity of the task seems intractable. In many cases, conventional remediation and treatment technologies have shown only limited effectiveness in reducing the levels of pollutants, especially in soil and water (Rickerby and Morrison, 2007).

In plants, mineral uptake is the process in which minerals enter the cellular material, typically following the same pathway as water. The most normal entrance portal for mineral uptake is through plant roots. Some mineral ions diffuse in-between the cells. In contrast to water, some minerals are actively taken up by plant cells. Mineral nutrient concentration in roots may be 10,000 times more than in surrounding soil. During transport throughout a plant, minerals can exit xylem and enter cells that require them. Mineral ions cross plasma membranes by a chemiosmotic mechanism. Plants absorb minerals in ionic form: nitrate (NO₃^-), phosphate (HPO₄^-) and potassium ions (K+); all have difficulty crossing a charged plasma membrane. It has long been known plants expend energy to actively take up and concentrate mineral ions. Proton pump hydrolyzes ATP to transport H⁺ ions out of cell; this sets up an electrochemical gradient that causes positive ions to flow into cells. Negative ions are carried across the plasma membrane in conjunction with H⁺ ions as H⁺ ions diffuse down their concentration gradient.

Introduction

Nano science is the study of the properties of structures of the size smaller than several hundreds of nano meter (nm). Nanotechnology consists in techniques for designing and manufacturing these structures as well as applications arising from these. The development of nanoscience and nanotechnology is in line with the trend towards miniaturisation. As nanoscience and nanotechnology developed, they make the barriers between traditional scientific and technological disciplines more permeable.

Fundamentals of Nanotechnology in Packaging • Overview of Nanotechnology in Packaging: Nanotechnology in packaging refers to using materials manipulated at an extremely small scale (1-100 nanometers) to boost the performance and capabilities of packaging. Techniques like nanoparticles, nanofibers, and nanocomposites are integrated into packaging materials to improve their physical properties, prolong shelf life, and introduce new functions like antimicrobial features. Mechanisms and Key Materials • Nanoparticles: Small particles added to packaging to enhance strength, f lexibility, and barrier properties. Common types include silver, titanium dioxide, and zinc oxide nanoparticles. • Nanofibers: Made from substances such as chitosan, cellulose, or polymers, these fibers increase strength and are useful in active packaging coatings. • Nanoclays: Dispersed in polymers, these increase resistance to gases and moisture, enhancing barrier performance

Nanotechnology is an emerging of field of science which is being highly exploited in the sphere of medicine where “nano” plays a vital role in delivery of drugs or chemical molecules to the point it is required in précised quantities in right proportions. Nanoscience infuses intelligence to the truck load of chemical constituents that are to be delivered at appropriate locations and cleave from the site after the task is complete. Such process will likely to reduce the cost besides ensuring environmental safety. Nanoscale devices with its unique properties make the agricultural system more smart and effective; such devices are capable of responding to different situations by themselves, thus taking appropriate remedial action with the need of external directions from humans. In short, these devices act as a detectors and if need arises serve as a solution/remedy for the particular issue. These smart delivery systems of chemicals in controlled and targeted manner can be considered synonymous to the proposed nano-drug delivery system in human (Patolsky et al., 2006).

Nano-biofertilizers (NBFs) represent an emerging and sustainable approach to improving soil nutritional security and crop productivity in modern agriculture. By integrating beneficial microorganisms with nanomaterials, nano-biofertilizers overcome several limitations associated with conventional fertilizers and biofertilizers, such as low nutrient use efficiency, nutrient losses through leaching, poor microbial survival, and environmental pollution. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the role of nano-biofertilizers in enhancing soil fertility, nutrient availability, plant growth, and stress tolerance. The mechanisms underlying improved nutrient use efficiency, soil physical and chemical properties, plant physiological stability, and resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses are discussed in detail. The application of nano-biofertilizers in conventional and precision agriculture systems, including sensor-based variable rate application, fertigation, and data-driven nutrient management, is highlighted. Additionally, various application methods, environmental benefits, and challenges related to safety, scalability, regulation, and farmer adoption are critically examined. Overall, nano-biofertilizers hold immense potential to revolutionize sustainable agriculture by promoting efficient nutrient management, enhancing crop resilience, and minimizing environmental impacts, thereby contributing to long-term food security under changing climatic conditions.