eChapters

Introduction.
The Cultural practices which includes manipulation /or adjustment of crop production techniques have been as old as possibly agriculture itself. In early stages of agriculture development, the growers through their experiences and observations had known that repeated cultivation of a particular crop species or variety on a piece of land often resulted in crop diseases. By proper crop rotations they had been avoiding such diseases. As a matter of fact, in the present day agriculture, cultural practices are being considered as essential backup methods for plant disease management. Cultural practices often offer the opportunity to alter the environment, the condition of the host, and/or the behavior of the causal agent, to achieve economic management of disease. Most cultural practices used to control plant disease are preventive in nature. Integration of cultural practices, host resistance and pesticides or biocontrol agents may be necessary to provide options for controlling economically important plant diseases.

Introduction
Intracellular transport of molecules plays a crucial role in maintaining cellular function and organization. The genetic and biochemical processes that regulate membrane trafficking, such as membrane bending, budding, fusion, and fission, ensure the efficient movement of molecules within cells. Despite substantial advances in understanding the molecular aspects of these processes, the broader, or “supramolecular,” regulation of membrane trafficking, which coordinates the overall balance and response to environmental changes, remains less explored. This involves the transport and exchange of membranes and proteins betweenorganelles in a highly organized manner, critical for maintaining cellular homeostasis.
Membrane Trafficking Pathways
Membrane trafficking consists of well-defined pathways connecting cellular compartments like the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the Golgi apparatus, and the plasma membrane (PM). Proteins and lipids are transferred from the ER to the Golgi and then directed either to the PM or other intracellular destinations. These pathways must be tightly regulated to maintain cellular balance, as any disruptions in membrane flow can lead to cellular dysfunction. In addition to routine cellular maintenance, these pathways must adapt to signals from the environment, ensuring that cells respond appropriately to external stimuli.

O    :    Pint.

O antigen      :    A polysaccharide antigen extending from the outer membrane of some gram-negative bacterial cell walls; it is part of the lipopolysaccharide.

O&E    :    Observation and examination.

Oa    :    Open access.

Abstract

Human resource management (HRM) has experienced a strong evolution. It is necessary to evaluate the design and implementation of personnel policies in order to provide useful information to managers. The objective of HR Audit is to analyze and evaluate the HR policies and their level of fit with the firm’s strategy and the characteristics of human capital. A periodic and systematic audit is very important in order to check the effectiveness and proper implementation of various HR policies in the organization. This chapter will represent various sections where the HR audit can be carried out, what should be the task of auditors, what are the steps/processes that needs to be followed at the time of audit, and various tools for HR Audit and preparation of Audit Report to be used for future references. At the end of this chapter a case study has been presented in order to make the study more effective.

When natural constituents of whole milk are altered by addition, removal, exchange and / or treatment, the resultant milk is designated as special milk. Recent years have witnessed a large increase in market penetration of special milks into the total fluid milk market. In many countries, now a large portion of fluid milk is consumed in the form of special milks. Manufacturers of special milks offer numerous advantages that are broadly related to dietary, cost and scarcity aspects. Special milks provide an avenue to diversify the milk with variety of flavours and other characteristics.

Milk is considered as nature’s almost perfect food. However, milk in its natural form is not considered suitable for many more healthy people who do not like the taste of milk as such. All these problems can be overcome by manufacturing special milks such as dietetic milks, low fat milks, flavoured milks, etc.

Butterfat is the most expensive constituent of milk. Therefore, the cost of buffalo whole milk is very high and many people particularly the weaker section of our society cannot afford to buy it. Consequently, manufacture of low priced toned milk was introduced in many markets. This also enabled the dairy plants to meet the ever increasing demand of milk, particularly during lean season. Replacement of butterfat by vegetable fat could also help in reducing the cost of milk

Due to seasonal fluctuation in milk production, there is acute shortage of milk during the lean period in our country. In certain parts of the world fresh milk is not produced at all. Manufacture of reconstituted and recombined milk from anhydrous milk solids can overcome such whole milk shortage. These anhydrous milk solids could either be prepared from the domestic seasonal surplus or marketed from those countries that have surplus milk production. The machinery and manpower of a market milk plant can be fully utilized all the year round by such diversifications.

1.1 Introduction

Water scarcity is seen as a major constraint to intensify agriculture in a sustainable manner as an attempt to meet the food requirements of a rapidly growing human population. The ever-increasing human population, climate change due to increased emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), and intensification of agriculture, are putting severe pressure on the world’s two major non-renewable resources of soil and water, and thus pose a big challenge to produce sufficient food to meet the current food demand. The present world population of 7.3 billion people is predicted to grow to over 9 billion by 2050, with the majority of this population increase occurring in developing countries, most of which already face food shortages. A 70% increase in current agricultural productivity will be required to produce sufficient food if these human population growth predictions prove to be correct. In this context, concerted efforts are being made globally to improve the effectiveness of water which will be used for enhancing the production of irrigated crops. Additionally, efforts are also being made to improve water harvesting and water conservation in rain-fed agriculture.

The injudicious use of saline/brackish water is all too often associated with the development of soil salinity, sodicity, ion toxicity, and groundwater pollution. Because of these negative effects, it is important to have a better understanding of exactly how the quality of water influences the management of irrigated agriculture, especially in arid and semi-arid regions.

Introduction

Cherry is a fleshy fruit of stone, it occupies a prominent position among the temperate fruit grown commercially all over the world. Cherry belongs to the genus prunus and the family Rosaceae. Other stone fruits such as plum, peach, almond, apricot also come under the genus prunus. The cultivated cherries are divided into two main group sweet cherries (Prunus avium) are mainly cultivated for table purpose and are consumed as fresh fruits (Fig. 1) , sour cherry (Prunus cerasus), is mainly cultivated for processing purpose which is a cross of Prunus avium × Prunus fruticosa. Somatic chromosome number of sweet cherry is 2n=16 and somatic chromosome number of sour cheery is 2n=32. Cherry requires highest chilling hours among the temperate fruits with 2000 to 2700 hours. In India cherry is commercially grown in Kashmir valley and other adjoining regions with an area of around 1,110 ha. With and annual production of around 605 MT (Bal, 1997). In these areas the span of winter is wide and very much pronounced and according to Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database (Anon. 2022) Turkey is largest producer of cherry in the world, around 42% of world production originated in Turkey, and around 14% production in the United States. Among the temperate fruit cherry comes first in the market. The primary center of origin is supposed to be the Caspian and Black sea region from where it has been spread throughout the world (Oz., 2013). The earliest records indicate that it was first domesticated in Greece around 300 BC. It spread to Italy from Greece where it was established as a fruit crop by 37 BC. In India, it was introduced by Britishers in Kashmir, Kullu and Shimla hills during pre-independence era. At present European countries are growing cherries on large scales for table purpose and also for processing.

Abstract
Transgenic organisms are defined as being introduced artificially with a transgene and incorporated stably into their genomes. There are various aquatic organisms in which the trans-genesis process has been applied like fish, crustaceans, molluscs, etc. Presently scientists can transfer a particular gene for a desirable and beneficial trait from one organism to another with more precision and in less time than traditional breeding. To date, over thirty-five species have been genetically engineered in laboratories. The transgenic fish are efficient feed converters. Salmon is the first transgenic fish that was used as food. Various techniques are involved in aquatransgenesis. They include – microinjection, electroporation, particle gun bombardment, liposome-mediated gene transfer and so on (setac. onlinelibrary.wiley.com). Through all these techniques a fish is genetically transformed so that it has desirable and beneficial trait. Numerous significant biotechnological uses for fish transgenesis are anticipated to be beneficial across a wide range of industries. The majority of genetically engineered fish serve purposes in fundamental studies of genetics and development. Various research teams have been creating genetically modified zebrafis to identify aquatic pollution. The lab that created GloFish initially aimed for them to alter their colour in response to pollutants, acting as environmental indicators. Transgenic fish have an improved growth rate than their nontransgenic counterparts. Moreover, they are disease-resistant and can be used as models for performing various scientific experiments in the field of environmental toxicology and biotechnology. All these beneficial traits are making transgenic fish more valuable in the biotechnological field. To fully realize the potential of transgenic fish technology in aquaculture, certain ethical and ecological issues must be scientifically resolved.
Keywords: Aqua-transgenesis, Genetically modified organisms, Microinjection, Biotechnological potential

Vegetables not only provide nutritional security but also income security to small and marginal land holders growing vegetables in the hinterlands of urban markets and dollar earners in global markets. India is endowed with favorable tropical, subtropical and temperate climate making it conducive for producing high quality vegetables round the year in one or other part of the county. As far as production is concerned, India is in number two in the world after China. But, as a matter of fact, in terms of productivity and subsequently for per capita availability, we are still lagging behind many countries of the world. Per capita availability of vegetables is 210-gm/capita/day against 300 gm/capita/day recommended by ICMR. There is urgent need to increase the productivity of vegetables in our country to feed the increasing population.

Methylene-cyclo-propyl-glycine (MCPG), is a cyclopropyl derivative, grouped into the amino acids that have been isolated from the higher plants (Fowden, 1960). MCPG was identified to be closely related to two other cyclopropyl derivatives (Fig. 1), 1-aminocyclopropane – 1 – carboxylic acid from Vacciniumvitis-idaea and perry pears (Vahatalo and Viertanen, 1957; Burroughs, 1957) and â- methylenecyclopropyl alanine (MCPA or Hypoglycin A) from Blighia sapida (Hassall and Rayle, 1955; Anderson et al., 1958; Ellington, Hassall and Plimmer, 1958).

Rusts

The following three rusts are known to occur on barley

1. Stem black rust: Puccinia graminis tritici f. sp. tritici
2. Leaf rust: Puccinia striiformis
3. Leaf rust: Puccinia hordei

Of these, the first two are described under wheat and the disease symptoms are identical. These two rusts occur commonly on barley and cause severe damage in certain years.

In 1850, Bacillus anthracis was first reported by three individuals in two different countries i.e. Delafond and Davaine in France, and Pollender in Germany. They could not establish the relationship of the bacterium with the infection. Absolute proof of the anthrax etiology as B. anthracis was established by Robert Koch during 1876-77. The name Bacillus anthracis was first coined by Cohn (1875) and the disease ‘anthrax’ was first named by Hippocrates (5th century B.C.). In Greek language meaning of ‘anthrax’ is ‘coal’ referring to the black coloured skin or blood in affected animals.

The seven basic tools of quality control are practical graphical techniques used to identify, analyse and resolve manufacturing problems systematically. Associated with Japanese quality expert Kaoru Ishikawa, they can be applied by employees at different organizational levels. In textile and apparel production, these tools support defect tracking, process control, waste reduction and buyer compliance. They consist of the cause-and-effect or fishbone diagram, check sheet, control chart, histogram, Pareto chart, scatter diagram and flow chart. Together, they help collect and organize information, reveal patterns, identify major sources of defects, investigate relationships between variables, map processes and determine root causes, thereby supporting evidence-based corrective action and continual improvement.

Background

Context

The information and knowledge system in virtually all sectors and access during the Soviet period was strictly state controlled and was essentially designed to meet the requirements of centralized planning. Very little information sourcing, message development, media packaging took place at the local level. Requirements for meeting agricultural production quotas were channeled to Moscow where information packages and norms, based on a central assessment of local needs were developed and transmitted from the center directly to the state and collective farms. The information was disseminated primarily via dense print publications, radio, TV, public campaigns, exhibitions and fairs, and to some extent through a computer network to areas with functioning telecommunication systems. The types of information and knowledge which the state and collective farms, private farmers, kitchen gardeners, agro-processing industries, input suppliers, marketing institutions and others engaged in agriculture could obtain were restricted and opportunities for exchange with the rest of the world were extremely limited and tightly controlled. There were very few avenues for cross checking the information received. In-house, well trained technical specialists addressed a variety of crop and livestock related problems and served as the main providers of knowledge. This was supplemented by research and field applications through a very large network of a variety of agricultural research institutes and experiment stations. Most of the research results were introduced through directives. Linkages between education, research, extension and end-users were weak and in some areas non-existent. However, the importance placed on education and training of all Soviet citizens resulted in a highly literate population to serve the needs of a socialistic economy. The centralized information and knowledge system was primarily aimed at meeting production targets in the plan with little or no importance placed on economic or environmental sustainability of farming systems and development of agro-industries.

Walnut (Juglans regia L.) is commonly known as ‘Akhrot’ in India. Internationally, walnut is known as English walnut or Persian walnut. It is an important nut grown in temperate regions of the world. It is cultivated for nut and wood in the northern hemisphere (Europe, Asia, and North America) and the Southern hemisphere (Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and South America). Walnut kernel is rich source of proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and polyphenols. Inclusion of walnuts in human diet has positive effect on heart, skin and circulatory system. Wood of walnut is used for making quality furniture, interior joinery constructions,music instruments, carving, sport items, gun stocks and fore-end, and producing highly figured veneers, usually from burrs, which are used for cabinet-making and decorative panels

Introduction

India’s policy in agriculture sector began in 1950 with a conscious effort to meet out the food needs of Indian population in view of famines but later on shifted to develop the agriculture education and research system for enhancing the productivity of staple crops and develop competent human resource to build skilled man power to strengthen agriculture and solve the problem of food & nutritional security at the nation level (1960,s to 1990,s) to the solution of global problems in agriculture through global solutions (2000,s onward) by forging the regional and global international corporation at different levels.

The closing years of the second decade of 21st century brought one of the most remarkable transitions in the international cooperation for strengthening the agriculture research and education in the history of agriculture in India. In most of the world the transition from a resource-based to a science-based system of agriculture is occurring within a single century.

Science, Technology and Skill Development in 21st Century

In the twenty first century, science and technology are viewed as the drivers of Indian economic growth; and agricultural R&D is expected to play a significant role in the process. Agriculture research and development is being affected by research and development at international level.

Ecology of a place is influenced by a number of biotic and abiotic factors. An agroecological zone is broadly homogeneous in climatic and edaphic factors, but not necessarily contiguous, where a specific crop exhibits roughly the same biological expression. On the other hand, the characteristics of an agroecological zone influence the crops and cropping patterns of the zone. Thus, there are considerable variations in the types and management practices of agroforestry systems being followed in different agroecological zones.

AGROFORESTRY FOR HUMID AND SUBHUMID TROPICS

Humid and subhumid tropical regions have much variation in biological, social and economic parameters. The characteristics of humid tropics include high mean annual rainfall of more than 1500 mm, dry season of less than four months in a year and mean annual temperature of more than 22°C. Rainfall usually exceeds the evapotranspiration. However, demographic pressure has caused excessive deforestation and overgrazing which developed soil related problems like low soil fertility, low organic matter, high acidity and high rainfall erosivity. The agroforestry practices designed for this region should aim for improved fallows, soil fertility improvement and conservation, food production, etc. Thus, the common agroforestry systems in this zone are taungya, homegardens, alley cropping, plantation-crop combination, windbreaks, silvipastoral systems and various intercropping systems. Shifting cultivation is a common practice in tropics which should be discouraged as it causes environmental degradation and ecological imbalance, soil erosion and soil nutrient loss.

Abstract

Camel milk has been known in Asia and Africa for 5000years for its benefits for human health. It is the closest to human mother’s milk and safe for children. Research studies around the world have confirmed that camel milk has better nutritional value as it exhibits many unique and amazing health-promoting properties as compared to cow milk. This milk is considered as a complete food and can be consumed exclusively while meeting all nutritional requirements. Many studies have reported that camel milk contains very high concentrations of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids, low fats, cholesterol, and lactose. It also contains higher amounts of minerals (calcium, iron, magnesium, copper, zinc, and potassium), vitamins B2 and C as compared to cow milk. It does not contains beta lactoglobulin and beta casein that are present in cow milk and that are the main cause of allergy in certain human population. Furthermore, camel milk contains various protective proteins that exert antibacterial, antiviral, and immunological properties. It possesses unique, powerful immune system–boosting components that would exert potential health benefits. It is an alternative for people suffering from cow milk allergy. So camel milk can be considered as next generation super food.

INTRODUCTION
The engine is the core of a tractor, providing the essential power required for all its functions. Typically, a tractor engine is a four-stroke internal combustion engine that operates on diesel, although some models may use gasoline. The engine consists of several integral components that work together to generate power and ensure smooth operation. These parts include the cylinder block, which houses the cylinders where fuel combustion occurs; the pistons, which move within the cylinders to convert the energy from combustion into mechanical motion; and the crankshaft, which transfers the piston’s motion to the transmission. The valve system regulates the intake of air and fuel, as well as the exhaust of gases, ensuring efficient combustion. The fuel system, made up of the fuel tank, pump, and injectors, supplies fuel to the engine, while the cooling system, typically water-based, prevents the engine from overheating. Furthermore, the lubrication system ensures proper lubrication of all moving components to reduce friction and wear. The starter motor and battery are responsible for initiating the engine’s operation, and the exhaust system directs exhaust gases away from the engine. Together, these components enable the tractor to generate the power needed for a wide range of agricultural and industrial tasks.
A tractor engine is designed to deliver high torque at low speeds. It is an internal combustion engine that primarily operates on diesel, compressing and burning the fuel to generate mechanical motion. Due to the engine’s complex structure, it is composed of several key components. The following list outlines the major parts that make up a tractor engine:

Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is sacredly considered as Kalpavriksha as it supplements the human beings.The popular name coconut is considered to be derived from Spanish word Coco implying “monkey face” which designates reference to the triple scars embossed on the shell which are identical to two eyes and a nose on the monkey’s face. Coconut belongs to family Arecaceae. Coconut palm has been the platform of a critical and sustainable life support system in the humid tropical parts of India. It is undoubtedly the most utilized plant on planet earth in context of number and wide range of products encompassing from the edible kernel, oil, shell liquid which is used as a refreshing drink, sweet sap and endless derivative of foliage, trunk and fiber utilized for widespread utility in agriculture field.

The production of coconut has continued to expand under the traditional niches of marginal land holders and subsistent farmers in the Southern states of our country. Coconut possesses unique capacity to survive and grow in typically distinct soil conditions while it broadly restricts to the regions possessing medium and high rainfall situations. Coconut plays a pivotal role in the economy of India. India is the leading producer of coconut around the globe possessing 31% share with a production of 20440 million nuts from an area of 1975 thousand hectares. Coconut industry supplements sustenance and livelihood to around 12 million people in India. Coconut is aptly known as Kalpavriksha which sensibly means that each and every part of a coconut is utilizable to support the mankind. The leaves of coconut palms get its utility for thatching of house in traditional ways. Besides this, baskets, sheds and husk are utilized for making coir products. Charcoal and activated carbon are made from shell. Coconut is used daily as a traditional ingredient in local cuisines of various Indian States. The other utility products of coconut include virgin coconut oil, dark chocolate etc. The adoption of these products has generated both income of farmers and employment in coconut sector.