eChapters

1. INTRODUCTION

The paradigm of world’s livelihood is built on the basic foundation of natural resources which includes humans, plants, animals, soils and minerals, water and air. But the very livelihood of these resources are at stake because they are strongly linked and dependant on each other. And to add, the material resource namely ‘economy’ has invaded the tranquil habitat and life of the community of natural resources. Thus the present crisis is challenging livelihood of each of these natural resources whether it is human, plant or water or earth and the element of economy is interfering with the natural recourse of human depending on water and soil; and human, plant, animal together are depending on soil, water and air. But when the livelihood of soil, water and air is at stake how human, plant and animal can survive; hence the design of livelihood of world has the essential ingredients of all natural resources.

We humans are selfish and concerned about our livelihood security only and try to over-exploit other natural resources and assumed themselves as the master of all natural resources. Practically, there is war going on between and among natural resources. The world could be better if each natural resource has its own right with prospects to safeguard its livelihood and all resources together with better livelihood could offer the lively world.

2. UTILIZATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

We should underscore that none of the natural resources are in ‘plenty’ and that we should ‘economize’ on each natural resource to build together the world’s livelihood. The food security of humans can not be attained without plants and plant security can nor be achieved without soil and water and it is impossible to keep secured soil and water without economics of management.

In short, the livelihood security of humans is entirely dependant on all other natural resources coupled with the material resource economy. It is incumbent on us to initiate appropriate steps from gross root to policy levels to make the world better.

Conservation has always been one of the most important applications of ecology.Unfortunately, the term “conservation” suggest “hoarding”, as if the idea were simply to ration static supplies so that there would be some left for the future. In the eye of the general public the “conservationist” is too often presumed to be an antisocial person who is against any kind of “development”. What the real conservationist is  against  is unplanned  development  that breaks  ecological  as  well as human laws. The true aim of conservation, is two fold–
    
(1)     To ensure the  preservation of a  quality  environment that considers esthetic and recreational as well as product needs; and  
    
(2)     To ensure as continuous yield of useful plants, animals and materials by establishing a balanced cycle of harvest and renewal.

Forests are valuable renewable resources for humanity on Earth. The country’s forest cover has been estimated to comprise 19.39% of its entire geographical area. Forests consist primarily of trees that offer wood that can be transformed into solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels. Forests play a crucial role in regulating the Earth’s temperature by serving as carbon dioxide filters. They provide habitats and shelters for numerous species and also contribute to the visual beauty of the environment. Forests supply the necessary resources for a range of wood related industries, including pulp and paper, composite wood, rayon and other synthetic fibers, sporting goods, furniture, boat
construction, and matches. Timber plays a crucial role in the construction of buildings.Various products, such as bamboos, resins, gums, oils, fibers, medicines, katha, lac, shellac, etc., are derived from forests.
The country’s forest cover has been calculated to be 637,293 square kilometers, accounting for 19.39% of the country’s total geographic area. This falls short of the stipulated requirement, which is 30% of the entire land area. The geographic region is comprised of 11.48% dense forest, 7.76% open forest, and 0.15% mangrove. World Forest Day is observed on March 21st, while National Forest Day is celebrated on September 11th.

Introduction

According to FAO estimates, about 50% total geographical area in India is under various degraded hazards and about 2.1 million ha of land is getting degraded and deforested annually (Sehgal et al., 1998). Out of that underground water in arid and semi-arid areas is saline or sodic in nature. While spices, medicinal and aromatic plants may be a boon for these areas, which not only withstand under adverse conditions but also could be productive and helps in mitigating these problems. However, other crops are remain less or unproductive in these areas.

“Natural” means an ecosystem not influenced by man and resources means that reserve stock of supply which living things can take from nature for sustenance of life. In reference to man, natural resources can be defined as those natural reserve stocks of supply which man utilizes for his sustenance and welfare. The reservoirs of natural resources are the sun,  the  atmosphere,  the  lithosphere  and the  hydrosphere.  Natural resources include energy, air, water, soil, minerals, plants and animals. The nature of resource depends upon many factors such as scientific and technological development of the society, profession of that particular society, and culture.

Natural resources are the resources present naturally in the environment. These resources are used by human being for their survival. Minerals, building stones, forests, and various energy resources are known as natural resources. Natural resources have been extracted and utilized since ancient times but as the population increased, the demand of natural resources are increasing day by day.

Natural soil health management plays a crucial role in ensuring longterm productivity, resilience, and environmental sustainability. One of the key practices in natural farming for maintaining soil health is the use of Jeevamrutha, a fermented microbial culture prepared using cow dung, cow urine, jaggery, pulse flour, and a small quantity of local soil. When applied to fields, Jeevamrutha acts as a catalytic agent that stimulates biological activity in the soil, promoting the growth of beneficial microbes that enhance nutrient cycling and improve soil fertility. It is typically applied once every 15 days to maintain microbial balance.
Another important technique is mulching, where dry or green plant biomass is spread over the soil surface. Mulching helps retain soil moisture, reduces erosion, and regulates soil temperature. As the mulch decomposes, it adds organic matter to the soil, improving soil texture, aeration, and water-holding capacity. Mulching also supports the proliferation of earthworms and soil microbes, which are essential for a healthy soil ecosystem.
Crop rotation and intercropping are practiced to maintain soil fertility and disrupt pest and disease cycles. By alternating deep-rooted and shallow-rooted plants, nutrients are used efficiently and naturally replenished. Intercropping with legumes enriches the soil with nitrogen through biological nitrogen fixation, further supporting soil health.
Natural farming avoids or minimizes tillage to prevent disturbance of the soil’s natural structure and microbial life. Minimal tillage helps maintain soil aggregates and protects the habitats of soil-dwelling organisms, ensuring the soil ecosystem remains intact.

Plants and many agro-industrial by-products incorporated into livestock diets may harbor a range of anti-nutritional compounds. These substances can adversely affect optimal nutrition by deactivating specific nutrients, obstructing the digestive process, or diminishing the metabolic efficiency of feed, ultimately leading to negative consequences for animal health and productivity. The naturally occurring plant compounds found in feed that disrupt feed utilization (FCR), lower production levels, and compromise animal health are referred to as anti-nutritional factors. Additionally, natural toxicants present in feed can hinder the absorption and utilization of nutrients in livestock. Therefore, it is essential to implement effective detoxification methods for these feed materials to mitigate toxic effects and ensure their safe incorporation into animal diets. A foundational understanding of these toxicants is crucial prior to undertaking detoxification and subsequent use in livestock feeding.
Natural toxicants can be categorized based on their chemical properties into several groups: Proteins, Glycosides, Phenols, and Miscellaneous toxicants. The chemical characteristics, pathogenic effects, and detoxification strategies for these compounds are briefly outlined below.
Proteins
1. Protease inhibitors: Protease inhibitors are prevalent throughout the plant kingdom, particularly in the seeds of many cultivated legumes. These inhibitors possess the capability to obstruct the function of proteolytic enzymes in the gastrointestinal systems of animals. Specifically, trypsin inhibitors form irreversible complexes with trypsin, rendering the enzyme unable to fulfill its role in protein digestion. This interaction prompts the intestine to secrete cholecystokinin, which in turn stimulates pancreatic enlargement. The presence of trypsin inhibitors in raw soybean can hinder the availability of methionine, leading to adverse effects in young chickens fed raw soybean meal,
including pancreatic hypertrophy, reduced growth rates, gallbladder contraction and increased bile acid excretion, similar to observations in other monogastric animals. In contrast, ruminants can effectively utilize untreated leguminous seeds. Consequently, the amino acids that would typically be released by trypsin are not reabsorbed, leading to their loss when trypsin interacts with these inhibitors. These substances, which are proteinaceous in nature, hinder the activity of certain digestive enzymes, ultimately impairing the growth and performance of non-ruminant animals. High concentrations of protease inhibitors are found in various leguminous seeds, such as soybean, kidney bean and mung bean. There are two primary types of protease inhibitors: a) Kunitz inhibitors, which possess a single active site that binds exclusively to trypsin and b) Bowman-Birk inhibitors, which contain two active sites that can bind both trypsin and chymotrypsin, thereby inhibiting both enzymes. Detoxification: These protease inhibitors are primarily heat-sensitive and appropriate heat treatment of leguminous seeds-such as roasting, toasting, popping, autoclaving (at 120°C and 15 lbs psi for 20 minutes), and cooking-can effectively inactivate them. It is important to avoid overheating during these processes.

Natural farming for vegetable cultivation is steadily gaining popularity in India due to its eco-friendly methods, affordability, and health benefits. This system
excludes the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and genetically modified seeds, instead relying on time-tested ecological techniques and locally sourced inputs. Common vegetables grown under this method include tomato, brinjal, okra, chilli, leafy greens, and gourds.
The focus of natural farming is on enriching soil health and encouraging microbial activity, which supports healthy plant development. Inputs like Jeevamrit—a blend of cow dung, cow urine, jaggery, gram flour, and soil—boost soil microbes and improve nutrient absorption. Beejamrit is applied to seeds to guard against soil-borne pathogens. Mulching using dry leaves or plant residues helps maintain moisture, regulate soil temperature, and reduce weed growth, thereby creating ideal conditions for vegetable growth.
Pests are managed using natural remedies like Agniastra, Brahmastra, and herbal formulations made from neem, garlic, ginger, and chillies. These treatments are environmentally safe and do not harm beneficial insects or soil fauna.
Practices such as crop rotation and intercropping with legumes help enrich the soil with nitrogen and interrupt pest cycles. Seasonal vegetable planting tailored to local climate and soil conditions improves resilience and reduces the need for inputs. Raised beds and drip irrigation are often employed to improve water efficiency. While yields

8.1 INTRODUCTION

Natural methods of vegetative propagation include strategies that the plants have developed for self-multiplication or perpetuation. Natural vegetative propagation is mostly a process found in herbaceous and woody perennial plants, and typically involves structural modifications of the stem, although any horizontal, underground part of a plant (whether stem, leaf, or root) can contribute to vegetative reproduction of a plant. In crops like ginger, turmeric, onion, garlic, gladioli, and dahlia etc. they continue to grow from buds that are present on the surface of the stem. In some plants, like sweet potato adventitious roots can give rise to new plants. In Bryophyllum and Kalanchoe, the leaves have small buds on their margins. On detachment from the plant, they are able to grow into independent plants and they may also start growing into free plants if their leaves were made to grow in the soil. In nature, vegetative reproduction occurs through underground stems, sub-aerial stems, bulbils, leaves and even roots.

INTRODUCTION

Agricultural biodiversity is the basis ofglobal food security. Wide variety of crops, soil and cropping systems are nurtured by human culturaldiversity since times immemorial. Potatois a majorfood crop which is widely acknowledged now. It is consumed by the world’s largest population than any othervegetable, produces more calories and protein per unit of land and time than any other food crop.Potatohas much potentialfor sustainable, non-chemical farming, fits well with many crop rotations,and does very wellwith naturalfertilizers. Over the years chemical based farming has started experiencing reduced production and increased costs, orboth (Singh et al.,2011 and Sreenivasa et al., 2010). Monoculture of crops such as rice, wheat and cotton etc., depletes topsoil of nutrients and reduces diversity of beneficial microbes leading to reduced soil productivity. It is finally making the crop plants vulnerable to parasites and pathogens. Environmental pollution caused bychemical fertilizers and pesticides is posinga serious threat worldwide (Doranet al., 1996). Healthy soil is the foundation upon which sustainable agriculture is built. Farming practices differ mainly based on soil inputs and crop protection measures (Devarinti,2016).Thusthere is growinginterestinorganicallyproducedproducts and farmers are shifting from conventional to organic farming. In India, Sikkim is the firststate where completelyorganic farmingis adopted. Farming practices differ mainly based on soil inputs and crop protection measures (Devarinti, 2016) in different regions. Different types of farming based on use of natural products are described in the chapter.

Definition

• If a communication source decodes the message that he encodes, if the mes- sage is put back to his system, we have a feedback.

Berlo (1960)

• Feedback is defined as the action reaction interdependence in communica- tion.

• The return to the input of a part of the output is the feedback.

• Feedback is the reaction on the part of the receiver to a sender’s communi- cation.

2.1 Roots and the Rhizosphere

The rhizosphere, the region of soil surrounding plant roots in which soil and microbes closely interact–plays an important role in soil carbon cycling. The rhizosphere is only about 1-2% of Earth’s soil volume but can store up to 30-40% of Earth’s total soil organic matter. Plants secrete organic compounds such as amino acids or enzymes known as root exudates, which are key in recruiting and selecting relevant beneficial microbes to colonize in the rhizosphere (Julie Bobyock, 2023). Studying these microbial-plant interactions is critical to better understand the relationship between plant growth and the role soils play in keeping carbon from the atmosphere. It is the region that is a few distances (2-80 mm) extended from the root system. Rhizosphere zone is the region of intense microbial activity, and it is isolated from the bulk soil that often called as Edaphosphere or Non-rhizosphere.

Plant growth results from interaction of roots and shoots with the environment. The environment for roots is the soil or planting medium, and its importance is often not appreciated beyond the physical and nutritional aspects. Roots do provide structural support for the plant, and they absorb water and nutrients, but they also produce plant growth-regulating substances, such as cytokinins. The cortex of the root is largely starch storage tissue, and represents a transition zone from the soil to the stele. The cortex also provides a niche to be occupied by mycorrhizal fungi. It is not as generally appreciated, however, that roots also support the growth and functions of a complex of microorganisms that can have a profound effect on the growth and survival of plants. These microbes interact in the soil around the root that is influenced by root exudates; this zone is called the rhizosphere. The effects of rhizosphere microorganisms on plant growth or health often are ignored unless the microbes weaken or kill the plant through disease. There are, however, beneficial interactions that can occur and be enhanced if actively managed by the grower. Establishment and maintenance of rhizosphere microbial populations is a dynamic process affected by age and kind of plant, nature and treatment of soil, environmental factors, foliar applications of chemicals, and interactions of microorganisms. It is important to remember that selective or preferential development of rhizosphere populations occurs in the early stages of plant growth and root development when root exudation is maximal but, thereafter, is altered and maintained at some microbial equilibrium by both microbial and plant activity, with both being influenced by edaphic and other environmental factors.

The sun is a hot ball of glowing gases at the heart of the solar system. Its radiant energy is practically the only energy source to the earth. Very small and insignificant quantities of energy are available from other sources such as the interior of the earth, the moon, and other stars. Without the sun’s intense energy and heat, there would be no life on earth.

PROPERTIES OF SOLAR RADIATION

The mean distance of the sun from the earth, also known as one astronomical unit (1 AU), is approximately 1.496 × 10⁸ km, though the distance varies as the earth revolves round the sun in an elliptical orbit. At this average distance, light travels from the sun to earth in about 8 minutes and 19 seconds. The energy of the sunlight supports almost all life on earth by photosynthesis, and drives earth’s climate and weather. The minimum sun-earth distance is about 0.983 AU and the maximum is approximately 1.017 AU. The earth is at its closest point to the sun (perihelion) on around January 3 and at its farthest point (aphelion) on around July 4.

The sun makes up about 99.86% of the mass of the entire solar system. The visible disk or photosphere has a radius of 6.599 × 10⁵ km, and the solar mass is 1.989 × 10³⁰ kg. The sun is a completely gaseous body. The chemical composition (by mass) of the outer layers of sun is 71% hydrogen, 26.5% helium, and 2.5% heavier elements like oxygen, carbon, neon, and iron among others. Since the sun is not a solid body, different parts of the sun rotate at different rates. At the equator, the sun spins once about every 25 earth days, but at its poles the sun rotates once on its axis every 36 days.

ABSTRACT

The law of intellectual property has assumed utmost importance the World over, in the recent past and it is being considered as one of the most important subjects of law in view of its implications on economic, social and cultural realms. The term “intellectual property” has come to be internationally recognized as covering, patents, industrial designs, copyrights, trademarks, know-how and confidential information or trade secrets. This paper presents an overview on nature and scope of these elements of IPR.

Introduction

The animals which man has domesticated over the years to meet his own needs for food, clothing, power or companionship include cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, horses, pigs, cats, dogs and poultry. Domestic animals like most other animal forms existing on earth including human beings, are the result of a long evolution and therefore each other and indeed to all living beings. Much has been learned or better understood about the physiology of these animals through comparative study on the other animal forms, though many a time these animals have served as experimental models for studies designed to gain knowledge about human physiology. Dog and goat for a long time yielded to such experimentation. The domestic animals have been used for obtaining information on their physiology per se only recently and most experiments have been designed to understand better the mechanisms related to production potential of these animals in terms of meat, milk and wool. Knowledge is also gained by the study of sick and abnormal individuals or through surgery. Animal ethology (study of behaviour) is a comparatively recent discipline which has contributed abundantly to our understanding of the behaviour of animals in relation to their productivity.

The place of domestic animals in nature is objectively described by placing them along with other living organisms in the accepted scheme of classification as formulated by the biologists. The domestic animals belong to the Animal Kingdom, which like the plant kingdom, is divided into a number of major categories, the Phyla. The animal Phyla range from the relatively simple protozoa mostly single celled forms, to the chordata which encompasses backboned animals, including domestic animals and human beings. This scheme of classification is based on the concept of evolution of life and the animals are classified on the basis of closeness or the distance of their relationship. The life cycle of the animal (Ontogeny) is said to repeat the evolutionary development of the animal (Phylogeny).

The domestic animals belong to the phylum Chordata, sub phylum Vertebrata, characterised by the presence of a back bone or vertebral column. They are further classified to belong to class Mammalia and sub class Eutheria. The cow, buffaloes, goat, sheep etc. belong to order Ungulata in sub class Eutheria. The horse and asses belong to order Perissodactyla. The cats and dogs belong to order Carnivora. The poultry belong to the order Galliformes in Class Aves.

The word physiology initially meant for that branch of biology which deals with the function of living organisms.Physiology can be defined as the study of mechanisms of body functions. Physiology is concerned with the way the various systems of the body function and the way each contributes to the functions of the body as a whole.Thus, physiology not only seeks to define the functions of living organisms like feeding, digestion, respiration, transport of gases in the blood, circulation and functions of the heart, excretion and kidney functions, muscle and movement, reproduction etc but also seeks to answer to ‘why’ and ‘how’ all these functions are regulated.

Economics and Reasonability

The four primary economic activities of production, distribution, consumption, and resource management are what we referred to as economic actors or economic agents in Chapter 1. Individuals, small groupings (such as a family or a group of roommates), as well as big businesses like the government or international corporations, can all engage as economic agents. Economics is the study of these actors’ actions and interactions during economic transactions. This chapter examines how people behave as independent economic players. We analyse this subject’s ramifications for economic theory and examine both historical and recent research on it.

Perspectives from History on Economic Behavior

A social science, economics is concerned with people and how we arrange ourselves to meet our wants and improve our well-being. All economic behaviour is ultimately just human behaviour. Even though institutional factors can sometimes appear to gain control (as evidenced by some bureaucracies’ propensity to grow over time), if you look closely at economic outcomes

Our nature is the greatest or only laboratory where a large number of events are occurring at every fraction of a second - there are so many events, creatures, miseries taking place in the nature. Rightly it is considered an unparallel and biggest laboratory, man has ever witnessed. However, understanding it’s any event requires deep devotion and understanding,then only success will come. Our Philosopher and Poet Kabirdas has understood these facts as have reflected in his various couplets “Jin khoja tin paiya, gahre pani paith” or “chalti chaki dekh kar diya kabira roye, do patan ke beech main sabit bacha na koi“. For an ordinary person earth is still flat and he may not know the reasons for change of seasons.