eChapters

. Introduction Millets, once considered as humble and forgotten grains, have made a remarkable comeback owing to their numerous health benefits, sustainability, and resilience in diverse agroclimatic conditions. Millet consumption is gaining momentum globally and thus it becomes imperative to establish clear and comprehensive standards for these grains. The chapter gives an insight into the reasons why millet standards are necessary, the challenges associated with implementing such standards and advocacy for a concerted effort to promote these nutritious grains as staples in our diets.

Technology spurs Agricultural productivity through various scientific methods and innovations which is evidenced by the success of the Green revolution leading to agricultural development.

The Green Revolution arrived in India in 1968 and had a remarkable impact on the world of agriculture by increasing production yield by 2.5 times, amounting to approximately 2 billion tones, which has been noted as the world’s highest growth rate in the agriculture sector. Because of the science and technologies used in the form of

Rejuvenation of fruit trees is visionary approach to save the old senile declining trees for future sustainable quality fruit production through unique integration of invasive exhaustive operations in scientific manner and skilful management. Since unproductive and uneconomic orchards are in abundance, a large-scale uprooting and replacement with new plantations (rehabilitation) will be a long-term and expensive strategy. Therefore, research efforts have been initiated at various pioneer institutes/ SAUs to standardize. The technology for restoring the production potential of existing plantations by a technique called rejuvenation. Rejuvenation of old orchard is very vital under orchard management. Reiterative pruning and canopy re-building of perennial fruit trees is medium- term strategy requiring scientific skill and technique, for bringing back the youthful vigour with enhanced quantum of quality production in sustainable way within a time gap of three years for mango, litchi and cashew (Lal et al., 2000; Kumar, 2008), while two years for guava, aonla and pomegranate (Singh, 2007; Hiwale 2009) without any economic loss to growers. The old fruit orchards need to be rejuvenated since they show decline in yield and quality of produce. These trees/plants need to be rejuvenated which have attained a stage where they are no more profitable from the grower ’s point of view (Singh, 2007; Srivastava, 2007).

Abstract

Water scarcity and soil erosion are the two most severe problems in arid region of Gujarat, particularly in Kachchh district being entirely under hot arid climate. Present study examines need of soil and water conservation measures in Kachchh district utilizing topographical details and 34-year (1980-2013) annual rainfall data for ten rainfall gauging stations. The impact of three factors, i.e. rainfall, topography and drainage pattern, on the water scarcity and soil erosion was studied. The rainfall characteristics in the study area were explored by computing basic statistical properties, plotting rainfall bar charts and drawing box-whisker plots. Furthermore, topographic features are examined by using Google Earth image and available topographical details. Drainage characteristics and pattern are explained and usefulness of farm pond for water conservation is demonstrated.

Background The Gulf of Mannar is one of the world’s richest marine biodiversity areas, as well as the first biosphere reserve in the region. The EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone) of this region is around 15,000 square kilometres, with commercial fishing taking place in about 5,500 square kilometres (Arnold John M. 2017). Throughout the year, both mechanised trawlers and non-mechanized vessels fish in this area (Arnold John M 2001). Crustaceans are the most key members of the benthic organism strata and have a higher nutritional value for humans, and a large number of tiny species contribute to the complexity and sustainability of tropical ecosystems. (Hendrickx 1995). The Brachyuran crab is one of them, and it dominates many estuary regions where salinity and temperatures can vary substantially on a daily basis. (Ng et al. 2008). There are around seven hundred genera and five thousand to ten thousand species of brachyuran crabs in the globe.

Though the extension education was originated as a “field approach” aimed to enhance the life quality of rural people, it has evolved into a scientific discipline that relies heavily on empirical research to develop and test its “field-oriented” approaches and methods. Since its birth, the extension research has passed through several phases and a range of research paradigms like community mobilisation, farmer participatory approaches, technology assessment and refinement, impact assessment, Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) aided development, etc.

Negotiation is a communication and problem-solving process built on a broad foundation of skills and knowledge. It is also one of the most popular and effective means of resolving conflicts and misunderstandings. Negotiation is back and forth communication designed to reach agreement while leaving the other side intact and positive.

Basic principle, without which negotiation is impossible

Successful negotiation requires compromise from both sides. Both parties must gain something, and both parties must lose something. You must be prepared to give something up to which you believe you are entitled. You cannot expect to defeat your opponent or “win” a negotiation by either the power of your negotiating skills or the compelling force of your logic. This is not to say that good negotiating ability is irrelevant. In most cases, a range of possible outcomes exists. A skilled negotiator often can achieve a settlement near the top of the range.

6.1 Preparing for Negotiation

Introduction

When people hear the word Negotiation, they picture board meetings, lawsuits and favorable deal-makers sipping tea in a conference room. They are pictured being dressed in their expensive suits and handing dossiers to each other. In reality, we negotiate all the time. If we have to sight a negotiation, all you have to do is lift the window-pane and look out. For instance, have you ever decided where to dine with friends, or decided upon a leave and talked it out with your supervisor, or argued with your senior for a hike? These are all some common examples in our daily routine.

This family of sub-class polypetalae is represented by only single genera and three species. Members are cosmopolitan in distribution, except in very cold regions, and are favorite plants for garden pools. Nelumbo lotus are the ‘sacred lotus’ plants of the family. Indian lotus, found commonly in shallow lakes and pods, is Nelumbo nucifera. Nelumbo, genus of aquatic angiosperms belong to monogeneric family Nelumbonaceae is represented by two elemental species N. nucifera and N. lutea. The 1st fossil record available with Pleistocene epoch of Kashmir.The NBRI, Lucknow acts as a biodiversity conservation centre.
Among the few bulbous ornamentals which survive only in water, one of them is lotus.N.aureavallis, known from Eocene fossils from North Dakota, USA is an extinct species from USA. Nearly all parts are edible. Leaves are used for wrapping around other food before it is cooked. Stalks are sliced & added to salad. Flowers are cultivated for ornamental value, religious offerings, environment beautification, water purification, besides for food, Chinese traditional medicine & yield valuable perfume. Flowers recommended as cardiac tonic and used in curing diseases of liver, skin. Its dried and powdered rhizomes are used to cure piles. Due to its astringent qualities, rhizome is known for its hypoglycemic, anti-pyretic, anti-diarrheal, anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory activity. It possesses anti-fungal activity against Aspergillus, Trichoderma, and Penicilium. Many traditional ancient medical texts report its use for skin conditions, notably ring worms & leprosy, sexually transmitted diseases such as gonorrhea and syphilis. Milky latex found in stems, leaves and flowers is used to fight bacterial infections. Lotus has been found to have 77% anti-oxidant activity. Swollen rhizome of vegetable lotus is used in culinary preparations. The roasted seeds are used as a substitute to coffee. Seeds are ground to obtain almond-flavoured flour. Seed pods (fresh or dried) are used in dry flower arrangement. Bhasinda is an underground stem i.e. rhizomes are edible as raw or cooked in northern parts of India.

Introduction

Plant Parasitic Nematodes (PPN) belonging to the kingdom Animalia are considered the most serious threat to agriculture and horticulture crops worldwide. The estimated yield loss on average is about 173 billion USD (12.3%), among which developing countries are more prone to nematode infestation (14.46%) than developed countries (8.8%). Nevertheless, these PPN aggravate the loss by forming disease complexes with other soil-borne pathogens (Jones et al., 2013). PPN gain entry onto the host roots through their secretome which secretes various kinds of proteins that are mandatory for the expression of disease symptoms in host plants. These proteins are generally called Nematode-Associated Molecular Patterns (NAMPs). The management of nematodes through synthetic nematicides paves the way for the production of commodities with toxic residues that may have severe ill effects after consumption. However, the use of resistant plants is another strategy to combat major PPN and suppress their population in soil and roots. Recent research progress has revealed the various defence mechanisms exhibited by plants against the invasion of PPN. Here we will discuss in brief about the various mechanisms followed by the host plants to recognise the invading PPNs and the resulting host immune response in response to recognition of various effector proteins of PPN.

Nematoda, a diverse animal phylum that comprises an estimated million species, inhabit very broad ranges of ecological niches throughout earth. These animals, ranging from microscopic to a meter in size, are extremely successful in adapting different environments and have different lifestyles as free-living or parasitic to plants, animals and humans. As a result, nematodes have evolved to communicate with a wide variety of organisms that they live and interact with, including microbes, plants, insects, other animals, and nematodes of the same and different species. These communications play a key role in the mutualism, parasitism, predatory and prey, host and pathogen relationships between nematodes and other organisms and are critical to the ecological fitness of nematodes (Hsueh et al., 2014)

Nematode Control

Plant parasitic nematodes can be controlled by several methods. The nematode control aims to improve growth, quality and yield by keeping the nematode population below the economical threshold level. The control measures to be adopted should be profitable and cost effective. It is essential to calculate the cost benefit ratio before adopting control measures.

The nematode control methods are

1. Regulatory (Legal) control
2. Physical control
3. Cultural control
4. Biological control
5. Chemical control

Plant parasitic nematodes can be controlled by several methods. The nematode control aims to improve growth, quality and yield by keeping the nematode population below the economical threshold level. The control measures to be adopted should be profitable and cost effective. It is essential to calculate the cost benefit ratio before adopting control measures.

Most of the plant parasitic nematodes affect the root portion of plants except Anguina spp., Aphelenchus spp., Aphelenchoides spp., Ditylenchus spp., Bursaphelenchus cocophilus and B. xylophilus. Nematodes suck the sap of the plants with the help of stylet and causes leaf discolouration, stunted growth, reduced leaf size and fruits, lesions on roots, galls, reduced root system and finally wilting.

Most of the plant parasitic nematodes affect the root portion of plants except Anguina spp., Aphelenchus spp., Aphelenchoides spp., Ditylenchus spp., Bursaphelenchus cocophilus and B. xylophilus. Nematodes suck the sap of the plants with the help of stylet and causes leaf discolouration, stunted growth, reduced leaf size and fruits, lesions on roots, galls, reduced root system and finally wilting. Symptoms of nematode diseases can be classified as

Symptoms produced by above ground feeding nematodes
Symptoms produced by below ground feeding nematodes

Future areas of emphasis for research and scholarship in nematode ecology are indicated by pressing agricultural and environmental issues, by new directions in applied nematology, and by current technological advances. Studies in nematode ecology must extend beyond observation, counting, and simple statistical analysis. Experimentation and the testing of hypotheses are needed for understanding the biological mechanisms of ecological systems. Opportunities for fruitful experimentation in nematode ecology are emerging at the ecosystem, community, population, and individual levels. Nematode ecologists will best promote their field of study by closely monitoring and participating in the advances, initiatives, developments, and directions in the larger f ield of ecology. Some major concepts in ecology have been explored including the dynamics of species interaction, the relationship between complexity and stability in ecosystems and the characterization of organisms as “r” or “K” selected (Howard Ferris, 1993). There has been some application of concepts of plant-herbivore coevolution and density-dependent regulation of populations.

In the soil environment plants are constantly exposed to a range of microorganisms which are likely to influence one another, as they occupy the same habitat. Phytonematodes are often considered as pathogens in their own right and are capable of producing a single, recognizable disease. Apart from this, they also get associated with other soil pathogens that result in the complex diseases, which are more devastating and cause huge crop losses. Phytonematodes are major predisposing factors for other potential soil pathogens, which deserve more attention. In the case of soil borne pathogens, further opportunities exist for interactions with other microorganisms occupying the same ecological niche. The significant role of nematodes in the development of diseases caused by soil borne pathogens has been demonstrated in many crops throughout the world. In many cases, such nematode–fungus disease complexes involve root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), although several other endoparasitic (Globodera spp., Heterodera spp., Rotylenchulus spp., Pratylenchus \spp.) and ectoparasitic (Xiphinema spp., Longidorus spp.) nematodes have been associated with diseases caused by soil borne fungal pathogens (Back et al., 2002).

Vegetables are the largest important constituent of our daily diet as well as high value cash crops for small, marginal and large scale growers. These are rich in proteins, vitamins, minerals and dietary fibre which are essential for our normal body functions, prevention of malnutrition and deficiency diseases. Vegetables also play key role in neutralizing the acids produced during digestion of fatty foods and also provide valuable roughages which help in movement of food in intestine.

Vegetables are the largest important constituent of our daily diet as well as high value cash crops for small, marginal and large scale growers. These are rich in proteins, vitamins, minerals and dietary fibre which are essential for our normal body functions, prevention of malnutrition and deficiency diseases. Vegetables also play key role in neutralizing the acids produced during digestion of fatty foods and also provide valuable roughages which help in movement of food in intestine. Some of the vegetables are good sources of carbohydrates (leguminous vegetables, sweet potato, potato, onion, garlic and fenugreek) proteins (peas, beans, leafy vegetables and garlic) vitamin A (carrot, tomato, drumstick, leafy vegetables), Vitamin B (peas, garlic and tomato), vitamin C (green chillies, drumstick leaves, cole crops, leafy vegetables and leaves of radish) and minerals (leafy vegetables, drumstick pods etc.). As per dietician recommendation, our daily requirement is 75-125g of green leafy vegetables, 85g of other vegetables and 85 g of roots and tubers with other food (http://AgriInfo.in).