eChapters

Bearing

Bearing is connotation of flowering and fruiting. When a fruit tree flowers and fruits, it is said in bearing condition. Different fruits have different bearing habits, inflorescences, types of flower, mode and medium of pollination, pollen viability and all these account a lot for the bearing of fruit plants.

Bearing habit

If one observes a mango tree, he/she may find it does produce the fruits terminally on a shoot and it citrus he/she finds the fruits always produced laterally in the leaf axils. The manner or patter in which a plant produces its fruit is known as bearing habit or fruiting habit. Bearing habits are specific to the kind of plant. In determining the bearing habit of any plant three points are to be considered.

Antony Van Leeuwenhoek (1681) first observed the spirochetes under the microscope and described them. In 1833, Ehrenberg used the name Spirochaeta for free living spiral shaped organisms. Obermeir (1873) first described a spirochete of pathogenic significance isolated from human patients with relapsing fever. Inada (1916) first isolated Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae from human patients of Weil’s disease. In 1980, Nogochi proposed the name as Leptospira.

In India, Taylor and Goyale (1931) first reported Leptospira from human patients suffering with jaundice in Andaman Islands. Ayyar (1932) first reported Leptospira from dogs in Chennai city.

Introduction

The mammary glands of female mammals secrete milk, a necessary food that is liquid and meets the newborn’s nutritional needs. All mammals consider milk to be a complete food for their newborns. It is considered a necessary food for humans and can be consumed as a product or as liquid milk. It contains almost all essential nutrients except iron, which is very low in milk. In essence, milk is an emulsion of protein and fat in water, supplemented with carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals.

Definition of Milk

• Milk is a complex biological fluid that differs from species to species in both composition and physical properties. It is the full lacteal secretion of a mammary gland that is obtained by milking mammals for a minimum of 72 h after calving or until the milk is free from colostrum.

• FSSAI defines milk as the normal mammary secretion derived from the complete milking of healthy milch animals. It should be free from colostrum.

From a chemical perspective, milk is a dynamically balanced mixture that comes in different forms such as emulsion, colloidal suspension, and true solution. It also contains varying amounts of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, salts, and water.

Gross Composition of Milk

Milk composition varies among different mammals. The average chemical composition of milk in various species is given in Table 1. Buffalo milk and sheep milk contain higher amounts of fat, while human milk comparatively has the highest lactose content. Human milk has lower protein content as compared to milk of other species.

INTRODUCTION

Phytophagous mites have long been considered as potentially serious pests of a wide range of food and fibre crops, and ornamentals. They are covered under subclass Acari of class Arachnida and phylum Arthropoda. Mites unlike insects are 8-legged creatures and lack compound eyes, antennae and wings. Plant feeding mites measure from 200µ to 600µ. Majority of the plant feeding mites belong to suborder Prostigmata, and phytophagous mites belong to family Tetranychidae (spider mites); Eriophyidae (bud or gall mites) ; Tenuipalpidae (false spider mites); Tarsonemidae (broad mites) and Tuckerellidae, in the decreasing order of their importance. Before one can develop integrated management of phytophagous mites in different agri-horticultural ecosystems, knowledge about the following fundamentals of phytophagous mite management principles is a big must.

ABSTRACT

Purine Nucleoside Phosphorylase (PNP) is an enzyme that functions in the purine salvage pathway by catalyzing the phosphorolysis of purine nucleoside thereby releasing the purine bases and phosphorylated sugar. Interest in PNP as a drug target arises from its role in T-cell proliferation and T-cell mediated autoimmune diseases. Recently, we have isolated the compound, coixol, from the plant Scoparia dulcis L. and its three-dimensional structure has been elucidated. As the structure of the coixol mimics the structure of PNP inhibitors, we have undertaken the molecular modeling studies of this compound with Human PNP, as a screening test for further in vivo studies. Generally PNP inhibitors have been synthesized with a ribose sugar moiety attached to them. As the plant Scoparia dulcis L. contains glucose and rhamnose (six membered ring), these sugar moieties are also included along with ribose in the presen study. In order to understand the binding mode and interactions of the isolated compound attached with different sugar groups, we have carried out the docking studies with Human PNP. The interactions between the ligand molecules and active site residues of Human PNP are similar to those of solved complexes and the energy values are also comparable, which clearly indicate that these ligands may act as inhibitors.

Abstract

Cow and buffalo milk is the major source milk worldwide contributing 81 and 15% of total milk production respectively. However, milk from animals like goat, sheep, camel, donkey, yak etc also contribute to human nutrition and health in different parts of world. These milks are source of staple traditional product and considered as delicacy in parts of Europe, UK, USA etc. The microbiota of raw milk and fermented milks, cheeses, made from raw milk is complex. These microorganisms have immense role in determining quality and safety of the subsequent product made from these milks as they may be responsible in spoilage and reducing shelf life, causing human health issues, also contribute to development of flavor and aroma formation, texture development, ripening cheese. Different factors like host, stage of lactation etc. affect the composition of microbiota present in the milks and methods like cultural and culture independent methods metagenomic analysis have been done to determine the microbial community present in the milk.

Introduction

Non- cow and non-buffalo milks such as milks from goat, sheep, camel, donkey, yaks etc. are one of the important sources of nutrition in different parts of the world. In Mongolia, the highlands of the Afghanistan and Pakistan, Himalayas in India, Nepal, and Bhutan, Tibetan Plateau and in the Mountains China yak milk is the only source of milk. Cheese made from sheep and goat milk are categorized as gourmet food and many times regarded as protected designation of origin (PDO) status. Camel milk is used for medicinal food and donkey milk is suitable for children, aged people due to its hypo allergenic properties. These milks and milk products like cheese, naturally fermented milks and yoghurt are staple traditional foods in different parts of the world.

1. Context

Women play a critical role in agriculture, and agriculture continues to remain the major livelihood strategy for women as well as millions of small, marginal and poor farming households in India. Despite this, farm women lack access to extension services as extension programmes rarely identify women as an integral client. Farm women and men have differential needs for knowledge, information, technology and skills as often they are involved in different activities spread over time and cropping seasons. Besides these, men and women farmers have differential access to assets, information, markets, credits, and other services that are necessary for using new knowledge, technologies and skills. Ignoring women while delivering services and technologies creates a gap as many of the agricultural operations are performed by women only.

It is estimated that if women had the same access to productive resources as men, they could increase yields on their farms by 20-30 per cent (FAO, 2011). Yields on plots managed by women are lower than those managed by men, as they do not have the same access to inputs. If they did, their yields would go up, they would produce more, and overall agricultural production would increase. It isn’t merely about enhancing productivity but also about being fair and equitable. Women are a significant part of the agricultural workforce and they deserve to be consulted prior to formulation of agricultural development plans and policies. SDG 5 on Gender Equality “Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls” is closely aligned to this aspect. Moreover, enhanced access to services can help women grow more food, have more say in the family, and could potentially lead to more income and food in women’s hands-leading to better food security and nutrition for the entire family as they are the major caregivers in the family.

Introduction

Out of the total cultivated area of 142 million hectares (M ha) in India during 2011–12, 100.2 M ha was under cereals (the word cereal derives from Ceres, the name of the Roman goddess of harvest and agriculture) and 24.8 M ha under pulses (splitting seed), the staple food grains in the country (Economic Survey 2013). There is very little scope of bringing additional area under food grains; on the contrary this may decline in future due to the land needed for civil amenities and industrial purposes.

Abstract

Colostrum is the lacteal secretion after the birth of the new-born. It has a very different composition from milk, naturally designed to build immunity, promotes growth, and protects new-born mammals from external factors. It has a higher amount of protein and fat which provides the building blocks for growth. The higher macro and micro nutrients present in it help in various inter and intracellular activity and metabolism. Colostrum is fully loaded with various immune-boosting factors and growth factors, among them immunoglobulin, lactoferrin, lysozyme, insulin-like growth factor, vitamins have the most importance. Colostrum can fight against various diseases, bacteria, viruses, toxins, and can build a healthy immune system and gastric digestion system in the human body. Bovine, non-bovine, and human colostrum have almost all components in common but at different compositions. Non-bovine colostrum is comparatively less explored than bovine colostrum. Deep research and marketing can bring this nature’s gift for the goodness of human beings.

1. Background

Agriculture sustains 58 per cent of population in India. Productivity and profitability are two major planks for food security and sustainable livelihood of farmers. About 86 per cent of farmers in India own less than two hectors of land. As a result, their marketable surplus is small which poses a major challenge in ensuring remunerative price. Limitations associated with quality of produce, storage, transportation, credit as well as vagaries of weather and market are other related problems. These limitations further aggravate if the producers happen to be women due to their socio-cultural and economic position in the society. Only a decentralised and income assuring approach alone can bring prosperity to the farmers apart from gender equality. This would ultimately propel the agricultural growth of the country.

The chapter discusses one of such approaches called the public private partnership (PPP). It has gained prominence in the wake of the demand for farm reforms, trade, commerce, climate change and gender equality in recent years.

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is one of the most important commercial crops of India. The crop is grown on commercial scale in coastal Maharashtra and other states of the country. The main reason for the low productivity is the pest incidence. The insect pests cause crop loss ranging from 30 to 40 per cent in cashew (Satapathy, 1993). Keeping in view, the strategy of increasing production, one of the important aspects is to develop technologies to save the crop from the pest incidences.

Cashew is attacked by around 180 species of insect and non-insect pests in India resulting in substantial yield loss (Sundararaju, 1993b). Godse et al. (2004) reported over 58 species of insects and pests on cashew crop in the Kokan region of Maharashtra region. The infestations of insect pests have been identified as one of the major factor responsible for low productivity. The most important pests that limit production are the cashew stem and borer (CSRB) and the tea mosquito bug (TMB). In addition, leaf and blossom webber, shoot tip caterpillar, and apple and nut borer cause damage. Recently, apple and nut borer and leaf miner are emerging as major pests and they also occasionally becoming serious in some orchards.

Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa L.) belonging to family Amaryllidaceae is half hardy, perennial, bulbous plant. Bulbs are made of scales and leaf bases and stem remains concealed within scales. The generic name Polianthes is derived from Greek word “polios” meaning shining or white and “anthos” meaning flower, in allusion to the blooms of the common tuberose and species tuberosa, the plant being tuberous in nature. Tuberose is commercially cultivated in tropical and sub tropical areas for cut and loose flower trade and also for the extraction of it’s highly valued natural flower oil.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Tuberose is a native of Mexico (Bailey, 1976) from where it spread to different parts of world during 16^th century. The name tuberose is derived from tuberosa, this plant being the tuberous hyacinth as distinguished from the bulbous hyacinth. The name therefore, is tuber-ose, not tuberose. By the middle of the 18^th century the tuberose was still referred for as Hyacinthus indicus tuberosus. Originally Linnaeus had used the name Polianthes floribus alternis in his Hortus Cliffortianus. Later it was grouped under the genus Polianthes and the species tuberosa.

Tuberose is cultivated on large scale in China, Egypt, France, Italy, Israel, South Africa, New Zealand, Spain, Sri Lanka, North Carolina, USA and in many tropical and subtropical countries.

In India tuberose is commonly known as Gulchari and Gulshabbo in Hindi, Rajanigandha in Bengali, Sukandaraji and Nelasampengi in Telegu, Nilasampangi in Tamil and as Sugandharaja in Kannada.

In India its commercial cultivations is confined to Bagnen, Midnapur, Krishnanagar, Ranaghat, Kolaghat and Pariskura in West Bengal, Guwahati and Jorhat in Assam, Pune, Thane, Sangli, Nasik and Ahmednagar in Maharastra, Udaipur, Ajmer and Jaipur in Rajasthan, Navsari and Valsad in Gujrat, Ambala, Gurgaon and Faridabad in Haryana, Ludhiana and Patiala in Punjab, Devanahalli, Tumkur, Kolar, Belgaum and Mysore in Karnataka, East Godavari, Guntur, Chitoor and Krishna district in Andhra Pradesh and Coimbatore and Madurai in Tamil Nadu. Growers of Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and Orissa are also concentrating in tuberose cultivation after evolvement of improved varieties namely Shringar, Suvasini, Prajwal and Vaibhav by Indian breeders (Singh, 2006).

Due to inadequate intakes of vitamins and minerals, half of the world's population suffers from micronutrient malnutrition. An adequate amount of wholesome as well as diverse foods are required for the proper growth and development. In addition to calories requirements, these foods should provide various nutrients. In India, ~70% of children do not get the required calories either due to lack of enough food or diverse food. This indicates that these children are also incapable of fulfilling their protein, minerals and vitamins requirements. Diets that lack diversity can be deficient in certain nutrients. Due to the micronutrient composition of the soil of a region, or because of the intrinsic insufficiency of the normal diet the staple foods of some region can lack particular nutrients. The individual plant foods are often deficient in certain nutrient components due to the varying level and composition of food nutrients in different food crops. Some crops are rich in one component but low in other. For example; legumes are usually high in protein, but deficient in essential amino acids like methionine whereas, wheat and rice are rich in carbohydrates but contain little essential amino acid such as lysine, iron, and lack provitamin A. Relying on a single food crop as major staple source of nutrients thus will not attain a nutritionally complete diet and result in malnutrition and deficiency diseases, which often occur in populations of developing countries, mainly due to poverty. Globally, over one billion people are undernourished and food security is a major issue with the world's population forecast reaching to nine billion by 2050.

Introduction

India is bestowed with varied agro-climatic conditions. Thus, horticultural crops have lot of potential in the country. India has witnessed voluminous increase in horticulture production over the last few years, which has undoubtedly doubled the income of farmers. As a result, the country has emerged as the 2nd largest producer of fruits (102.48 million tonnes) after China during 2020-21 (Anonymous, 2023). The abundance of fruits ranging from tropical delights like mango, banana, guava and papaya to temperate fruits such as apple, peach, plum, apricot and pear, have laid a robust foundation for the growth of the fruit processing industry. This chapter delves into the dynamics of fruit processed products in both local and international markets, exploring the challenges, opportunities and strategies for sustained success. Fruit processing plays a crucial role in adding value to horticultural produce, enhancing shelf-life and meeting the diverse demands of local and international markets. In India, a country blessed with abundant fruit varieties, the processed fruit industry has been witnessing significant growth, catering not only to the domestic market but also making strides in the global arena. The processing of these fruits into various products such as juices, pulps, concentrates, jams and dried fruits has emerged as a thriving industry. This chapter will provide insights into the current state of fruit processed products in India, their importance for both local consumption and export markets, challenges faced by the industry and potential avenues for the future growth.

Transgenic crops, developed through genetic engineering techniques, have revolutionized modern agriculture by conferring novel traits that enhance yield, quality, and resilience. This chapter delves into the intricate interplay between the scientific advancements in breeding approaches for transgenic crops and the critical ethical concerns and regulatory frameworks that accompany them. The chapter begins by introducing the concept of transgenic crops and provides an overview of the diverse breeding techniques employed to manipulate plant genomes. These techniques include Agrobacterium mediated transformation, biolistic transformation, CRISPR-Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats–associated protein 9) genome editing, RNA interference (RNAi), and site-specific integration methods. Each method is presented within the context of its potential benefits and limitations. The subsequent sections address the ethical considerations that arise from the creation and deployment of transgenic crops. The potential ecological and biodiversity impacts, cross-contamination risks with conventional crops, and issues related to patenting genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are explored. Furthermore, the chapter examines the ethical implications of genetically modified crops on human and animal health and questions surrounding the monopolization of seed resources. Looking to the future, the chapter outlines emerging breeding technologies and anticipates potential challenges in ethical consideration and regulation.

2.1. Introduction

A system of housing is more or less synonymous to the system of management of dairy cattle. Housing is essential to protect the animals from extreme climatic conditions, wild animals and theft. Housing also helps to maintain normal health of the animal by proper feeding, watering and reducing environmental stresses. An efficient housing system ultimately leads to an efficient management and reduce labour requirements to the minimum.

Analysis of Variance
    
Completely Randomised Design (C.R.D.)
    
Randomised Block Design (R. B. D.)
    
Latin Square Design

Introduction

Forest cover of India has been estimated to be 7,01,673 km2 (70.17 million ha) which is 21.34 per cent of the total geographical area of the country. The tree cover of the country is estimated to be 92,572 km2 which is 2.82 per cent of geographical area. The total forest and tree cover is 7,94,245 km2 which is 24.16 per cent of the total geographical area of the country. Out of this, 9.14per cent forest cover is in the form of open forests and another 1.26 per cent is scrub forests (FSI 2015). According to National Forest Policy 1988, one-third (33.33%) of the land area should be under the forest cover for sound ecological balance. It means that we have to bring another 11.66 % area under forest cover and at the same time improve quality of the degraded forests. However the horizontal expansion of land under tree cover is not possible. In order to increase the tree cover and fulfill the requirements of the people and industries,

Earth’s atmosphere is a dynamic and complex system that plays a crucial role in supporting life as we know it. This chapter explores into the fascinating world of this gaseous envelope that surrounds our planet, exploring its composition, structure, and the processes that drive both our daily weather and long-term climate. It includes:
• Composition and Structure: It will begin by examining the unique blend of gases that make up the atmosphere, including nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and trace amounts of others. It will also be explored how the atmosphere is structured into distinct layers (troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere), each with its own characteristics and role.
• Weather: Weather refers to the short-term conditions of the atmosphere at a specific time and place. We’ll discuss the key elements of weather, such as temperature, pressure, humidity, wind, and precipitation, and how they interact to create the ever-changing weather patterns we experience.
• Climate: In contrast to weather, climate describes the long-term average of atmospheric conditions in a particular region. We’ll investigate the factors that influence climate, including latitude, altitude, proximity to oceans, and atmospheric circulation patterns. We’ll also explore the different climate zones found across the globe.
• Interconnectedness: A key focus of this chapter understands how weather and climate are interconnected. Daily weather patterns are influenced by the same fundamental atmospheric processes that shape long-term climate. For example, the way the sun’s energy interacts with the atmosphere drives both daily temperature variations and global climate patterns.

3.1. Introduction 

Calves are the future replacement stock of dairy farm. The raising of calves, an important operation of the dairy farm requires a great deal of managemental skill, application and constant attention. Any negligency results in increased calf mortality, poor growth and development of the calves. So, care of the calves is important for success of the dairy farm.