eChapters

14.1 Model Organism: A model organism is a species that has been widely studied, usually because it is easy to maintain and breed in a laboratory setting and has particular experimental advantages. Model organisms are non-human species that are used in the laboratory to help scientists understand biological processes. They are usually organisms that are easy to maintain and breed in a laboratory setting. For example, they may have particularly robust embryos that are easily studied and manipulated in the lab, this is useful for scientists studying development. They may occupy a pivotal position in the evolutionary tree, this is useful for scientists studying evolution.

Introduction

Nematodes are cosmopolitan and ubiquitous in occurrence. These have been reported in all kinds of ecological niche. Accordingly, different kinds of nematode fauna had evolved with distinct morphological features and physiological variability. However, development and perception keep changing with the ambient environment. Agriculture has progressed with leap and bounce as human being has managed this to its maximum utility. The fast changes in agriculture definitely influenced the ecological niche and affected the flora and fauna. Consequently, specific and unspecific kind of relation evolved between host and parasite. With the thumb rule of ecological balance or homeostasis. In the dynamic Mother Nature, multispecies heterogeneous complex is sustained and nature do not perpetuate homogeneity.

Introduction

Plantation crops are high value commercial crops which are broadly classified as estate crops consisting of crops like tea, coffee and rubber and small holders plantation crops like coconut, cashew, arecanut, cocoa etc. Spices especially black pepper, cardamom, vanilla, tree spices like clove, nutmeg, cinnamon and allspice are generally grown as mixed crops in perennial cropping systems. In India, plantation crops including spices are grown in an area of three million hectares and generate an annual income of more than Rs, 5,53,630 million. They are valued for multifarious uses to meet the human needs such as food, oil, industrial raw materials, beverages and confectionary items. Pests and diseases are the major limiting factors in increasing the productivity of these crops. Among the pests, nematodes have got a major role in devastating the pepper plantations by the involvement in slow wilt disease, nematode diseases of cardamom nurseries, root-knot nematode infestation in ginger, turmeric, clove, nutmeg, allspice, lesion nematode infestation in tea, coffee, etc.

Sampling for nematode population estimation

Sampling for nematode communities has been the basis for the development of appropriate control strategy. The major purposes of sampling for nematodes include population estimation for general detection, advisory or predictive programme, disease diagnosis and also for research purposes.

Plant parasitic nematodes are usually confined to top 20-25 cm soil and may vary depending upon the soil type, moisture content, host plant and climatic condition. Surface soil do not harbour any nematode. The roots and rhizosphere of severely infested plants do not harbour numerous nematodes as the nematodes tend to move to adjacent healthy plants. Hence soil and root samples need to be collected from plants showing partial symptoms. Samples should not be collected from dead or wilted plants.

Sampling for nematode communities has been the basis for the development of appropriate control strategy. The major purposes of sampling for nematodes include population estimation for general detection, advisory or predictive programme, disease diagnosis and also for research purposes.

‘Nematodes’, otherwise known as ‘eel worms’, ‘thread worms’, ‘round worms’, and ‘nemas’ are unsegmented, smooth-bodied, mostly minute, worm-like metazoan organisms. They are classified under the Phylum - Nematoda. The term ‘Nematode’ has been derived from the two Greek words ‘Nema’ = thread and ‘Eidos’ = form, which means thread-like organisms. At present, the nematodes, which are exclusively parasitic on man and livestock are studied under ‘Helminthology’ or ‘Parasitology’, while the plant parasitic or phytonematodes, as well as free-living nematodes are studied under ‘Nematology’, a branch of biological science that exclusively deals with nematodes. Cobb coined the term Nematology in about 1920.

Nematodes are ubiquitous and are found every where life can sustain. They can survive in any type of environment and are found from the arctics to the tropics and from the oceans to the top of hills. Though basically aquatic, nematodes have adopted terrestrial habits. They are mostly found in the soil around the rhizosphere of roots of plants. They constitute 80 - 90 per cent of all multicellular organisms and the number of nematodes may vary from 1.8 - 120.0 million per sq. m. of soil according to Kevan (1965). At present the number of established species is about 15,000, but there may be several thousands more.

To tackle modern-day challenges and attain a sustainable growth while managing farm enterprises, the farmers have to undergo rigorous behavioral change to transform themselves as entrepreneur. Thus, the present chapter deals with incorporating an understanding about the idea of an entrepreneur and entrepreneurship and the organization level, present status and promotional opportunities of FPOs.

2.1 Who is an Entrepreneur?

An entrepreneur is someone or a group of individuals who conceptualize, start, and sustain for a long enough period of time a social organization that provides financial rewards, or, to put it another way, who see a business opportunity and create a firm to pursue it. (Cole,1968)

Abstract

Satellite imagery interpretation has shown the existence of a major Palaeochannel system in the Great Indian desert. These palaeochannels belong to the mythological Sarasvati river, which seems to have flowed southwesterly close to the Aravalli hill ranges and joined the sea in the Great Rann of Kutch. Subsequently it seems to have shifted northwesterly, and more precisely in an anti-clockwise direction and got buried in the desert in Anupgarh plains. While its oldest course is the now misfit Luni river, its final trace is now represented by Ghaggar river. Whereas its overall northwesterly migration is attributed to NE-SW trending cymatogenic arching along the Great Rann of Kutch in the southwest to the Siwalik hills in the northeast, its multivariate palaeodrainage is attributed to block faulting and land subsidence in the Bikaner sector.

Introduction 
NEP was announced by Sri Narendra Modi, the PM of India on July 29,2020. The system was introduced after the debates by experts from various fields. The earlier education system was 10+2+3 which changed to 5+3+3+4.The NEP 2020 have less curriculum contents and increases learning, reasoning and logical skills. After the completion of UG courses in the higher education they may opt for the Research Methodology. The 5+3+3+4 design is equivalent to the age groups 3-8 years, the foundational stage which is mainly based on play or activity based learning, 8-11 years, the preparatory stage which is based on play, discovery, activity based and interactive classroom learning, 11-14 years, the middle stage is based on experiential learning in Science, Mathematics, Arts, Social Science and Humanities and 15-18 years, the secondary stage emphasized on multidisciplinary study, greater critical thinking, flexibility, student choice of subjects. Government will constitute a Gender Composition plan to provide equal and standard education to all girls and third gender learners. 10th and 12th standard students are no longer to sit for board exams which will be accessible to test core competencies rather than memorised facts with all students allowed to take the exam twice. Internships will be started from 6th standard. The teaching upto 5th standard will be in regional languages and mother tongue. The assessment covers reforms with 360 degrees overall progress report tracking the progress for achieving learning outcomes. Within 2030, the B.Ed degree duration will be 4 years. The holistic U.G education will be having several exit options and certification will be provided.

1. Introduction to Nepal and its Agriculture

1.1. Geography

Nepal is a country of enormous geographical diversity, and is situated in the southern slopes of the central Himalayas, which spreads over an area of 1,47,181 square kilometers. Sandwiched between India on three sides- east, west, and south – and China to the North, Nepal is a land-locked country (CBS,2003).
 
Geographically, the country is broadly divided into five roughly parallel east-west regions (ecological belts), which from north to south are known as High Mountains, Mountains, Hills, Siwaliks  and Tarai. With altitudes ranging from less than 100 m in the Tarai to 8,848 m in the High Mountains, there exist different climates and different types of farming systems within Nepal. As a result of these diversities, a wide variety of crops, vegetables and fruits are produced.
 
For administrative and developmental purposes, Nepal is divided  into 75 districts. Each district is further divided into Village Development Committees (VDCs) in rural areas and municipalities in urban areas. At present, there are 3,913 VDCs and 58 municipalities in Nepal.

Nerium oleander

? (Oleander, kaner, rose laurel)

? An ornamental plant and grown in lawns and gardens.

? Other species are Nerium indicum (kaner) & Thevetia peruviana (yellow oleander).

Sources

? Almost all animal species are poisoned.

? Ingestion of branches, stem or leaves during drought or periods of food scarcity or consumption of contaminated water by ruminants or horses.

? Chewing of leaves may be responsible for toxicity in dogs.

? Ingestion of 30-60 gram fresh leaves of oleander is fatal for horses, cattle and sheep.

? All parts of plant are toxic, the leaves and flowers may be less toxic than the seeds.

Nerium (Nerium oleander L.) belongs to family Apocynaceae is a Mediterranean evergreen shrub characteristic of watercourses, gravely places and damp slopes (Portis et al., 2004 and Herrera, 1991). The first Oleanders came to subtropical Galveston in 1841. Joseph Osterman, a prominent merchant, brought them from Jamaica. After distributing these oleanders, these new plants were growing throughout the city. Later as early as 1908, an editorial in the Galveston Tribune observed that the oleander was emblematic of Galveston. In 1910, The Galveston Daily News also reported that Galveston was known throughout the world as “The Oleander City” and in 1916, an article named it one of the most beautiful cities in the South. It is widely grown as an ornamental in warm temperate and subtropical regions, due to its abundant and long-lasting flowering and moderate hardiness. It is used for screens, hedging along highways, planting along beaches and in urban areas as, by removing suckers and leaving just a few stems, it can also be formed into very attractive small trees (Portis et al., 2004). Nerium oleander is among the most toxic of all ornamental plants. More than fifty toxins have been isolated, including cardiac glycosides, general cell toxins and the strychnine-like compound rosagenin. The ancient city of Volubilis in Morocco took its name from the old Latin name for the flower.

Nerium (Nerium oleander L.) belongs to family Apocynaceae is a Mediterranean evergreen shrub characteristic of watercourses, gravely places and damp slopes (Portis et al., 2004 and Herrera, 1991). The first Oleanders came to subtropical Galveston in 1841. Joseph Osterman, a prominent merchant, brought them from Jamaica. After distributing these oleanders, these new plants were growing throughout the city. Later as early as 1908, an editorial in the Galveston Tribune observed that the oleander was emblematic of Galveston. In 1910, The Galveston Daily News also reported that Galveston was known throughout the world as “The Oleander City” and in 1916, an article named it one of the most beautiful cities in the South. It is widely grown as an ornamental in warm temperate and subtropical regions, due to its abundant and long-lasting flowering and moderate hardiness. It is used for screens, hedging along highways, planting along beaches and in urban areas as, by removing suckers and leaving just a few stems, it can also be formed into very attractive small trees (Portis et al., 2004). Nerium oleander is among the most toxic of all ornamental plants. More than fifty toxins have been isolated, including cardiac glycosides, general cell toxins and the strychnine-like compound rosagenin. The ancient city of Volubilis in Morocco took its name from the old Latin name for the flower.

Nerium (Nerium oleander), commonly known as oleander or Kaner, is an evergreen flowering shrub cultivated for loose flowers, landscaping and religious uses. Its flowers are widely used for garlands and temple offerings, while the plant is valued in landscaping because of its drought tolerance and adaptability to poor soils. The chapter presents its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical description and important varieties. It explains climate and soil requirements, propagation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation, pruning and other cultural operations. Pest and disease management is also covered. Special attention is given to harvesting fully open flowers, postharvest handling and shelf-life improvement. The chapter also discusses yield and the plant’s toxic nature.

Brachial plexus (FIG. 5-5 A)

The fore limb is supplied by nerves that extend from the brachial plexus. The brachial plexus is a large wide, flat and thick fascicular anastomosis of nerves formed by the convergence of ventral branches of last three cervical and first two thoracic spinal nerves in ox. It is placed between the scalenus muscle on the lateral wall of thorax and subscapularis and deep pectoral muscles on the costal (medial) surface of the scapula. From this plexus extend the following eleven branches (nerves) which are distributed mainly to the fore limb (thoracic limb) and most of the muscles of the thoracic girdle.

The nerves of the head connect the central nervous system i.e. brain with the structures like skin, muscles, glands, blood vessels, organs of special senses etc. so as to monitor or control their functioning. These nerves are the cranial nerves and their branches. There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves.

Olfactory nerve (Cranial nerve I)

The olfactory nerve is the first cranial nerve and is known as the nerve of sense of smell. It consists of fibres which are the axons of olfactory cells of olfactory part of nasal mucous membrane. These fibres are nonmedulated and they form number of small bundles which are enclosed into connective tissue sheaths derived from the meningeal layers of the brain. These nerve fibres bundles pass caudally upward through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone and enter the cranium to join the olfactory bulbs of the brain. Besides the olfactory nerve bundles there are two more nerves that extend from the nasal mucous membrane, traverse through the cribriform plate and join the parts of the brain. These include the vomeronasal nerve that is formed by the nerve fibres arising on the vomeronasal organ and terminating on the accessory olfactory bulb of the brain. The other one is the terminal nerve that after reaching the brain joins the olfactory trigone.

Pelvic (Lumbosacral) plexus

The hind limb is supplied by the nerve branches extending from the Pelvic (lumbosacral) plexus (Fig. 6-4 A and B) which is formed by the convergence of the ventral divisions of the last three lumbar and first two sacral nerves. It is formed in two parts, the cranial and caudal. The two parts are connected by anastomotic branches. The cranial (lumbar) part is formed by the fourth and fifth lumbar nerves and lies between the psoas major and psoas minor muscles while the caudal (sacral) part is formed by the sixth lumbar and first and second sacral nerves. Some times a root from third sacral also joins this part. It lies on the pelvic surface of the sacrosciatic (ischial) ligament. The nerves extending from the cranial part of the plexus are the lateral cutaneous femoral, the femoral and the obturator. The nerves extending from the caudal part are the cranial gluteal, caudal gluteal and the sciatic (ischiatic).

Lateral cutaneous femoral nerve

The lateral cutaneous femoral nerve while leaving the cranial part of the plexus, receives fibres from the fourth lumbar nerve, passes caudally between the psoas major and psoas minor muscles and reaches the tuber coxae. Here it perforates the obliquus abdominis externus muscle in company with the circumflex iliac artery and reaches the skin of the lateral aspect of the thigh. In this course, the nerve supplies the psoas major, psoas minor, iliacus and external oblique muscles of the abdomen and the skin and cutaneous muscle on the lateral face of the thigh.

There are eight pairs of cervical spinal nerves in ox. The first of these emerges out through the lateral vertebral (alar) foramen of the atlas vertebra. The second through the lateral vertebral foramen (at the cranial border of the arch) of the axis vertebra and the eighth nerve emerges through the intervertebral foramen between the last cervical and first thoracic vertebra. The third to seventh nerves emerge through the corresponding intervertebral foramen. Each of these nerves divides into dorsal and ventral branch immediately after their exit from the vertebral canal through respective foramina. The dorsal branches are larger than the ventral except for the first and last two and most of them divide in to medial and lateral branches. They supply the dorsal (dorsolateral) cervical muscles, skin and the cervical part of the nuchal ligament. The ventral branches are distributed to the ventral cervical muscles and skin, The ventral branches of the last two cervical nerves are large.

Lumbar nerves

There are six pairs of lumbar spinal nerves. Each of these, after emerging out of the intervertebral foramen, gives out firstly a meningeal branch which reenters the vertebral canal through the intervertebral foramen and supplies the meninges. Next to this it furnishes the ramus communicans to the sympathetic chain ganglion. After this, the lumbar spinal nerves divide into dorsal and ventral branches. The dorsal branches are smaller and they supply the muscles and skin on the loins and croup. The ventral branches are larger and they slightly differ from each other in their course and distribution. In their initial course, they pass under the psoas minor and psoas major muscles emerge at the lateral border of the psoas major and supply branches to the sublumbar muscles. Hereafter, they differ in their course and distribution.

The ventral branch of the first lumbar nerve passes on the medial face of the quadratus lumborum, runs down the medial face of the transversus abdominis, the obliquus abdominis internus and externus and finally reaches the rectus abdominis, supply all these muscles and the skin on the lateral wall and the floor of the abdomen.

The ventral branch of the second lumbar nerve has two divisions. The cranial division passes ventrally and caudally to reach the external angle of the ilium, supplies branches to the oblique muscles of the abdomen and the skin over this region and terminates in the rectus abdominis muscle. The caudal division passes caudally and laterally under the quadratus lumborum, supplies branches to the muscles and skin at the flank region and then crosses the circumflex iliac vessels. Here it joins a similar branch of the third lumbar nerve and forms the genitofemoral nerve.