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Pulses are known for their soil fertility restoration value. Deep rooting, nitrogen fixation, leaf shedding ability and mobilization of insoluble soil nutrients are some of the unique characteristics of pulses. By improving chemical, biological and physical environment in the soil, pulses can arrest the declining trend in productivity of cereal-cereal system. Inclusion of pulses in intensive cereal based system itself is a component of integrated plant nutrient supply system. Therefore, pulses have become viable alternative to improve the soil health and conserve the natural resources and agricultural sustainability. Pulses in the cereal/oilseed based cropping systems are introduced to break the monotony of crop rotation. Pulses being rainfed low input crop provide safeguard against crop failure due to scanty rainfall and adverse weather conditions. Apart from enriching soil fertility, introduction of pulses in cropping system also improves nitrogen economy. Early pigeonpea-wheat sequence was evaluated and found promising than traditional rice-wheat cropping system in irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, central and western Uttar Pradesh.

Pulses are legumes whose grains are consumed as dal. Thus all legumes are not pulses, but all pulses are legumes. Legumes are characterized by presence of nodules in the root systems and papilionaceous form of flowers. Pigeon pea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millisp.], green gram [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczec.], black gram [Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper], cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.], horse gram[Macroyloma uniflorum [(Lam.) Verd.] and moth bean[Vigna acontilifolia (jacq.) Marechal] are the important kharif pulse crops grown in different parts of India. The common rabi pulses are chickpea(Cicer arietinum L.), lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.), pea (Pisum sativum L.), lathyrus (Lathyrus sativus L.) and frenchbean ( Phaseolus vulgaris ). All these have C₃ photosynthetic cycle. All form root nodules in association with symbiotic bacterium Rhizobium. Increase in concentration of green house gases, particularly carbon di-oxide, has led to global warming and climate change. The extreme weather events such as drought, excess moisture, untimely rain, cyclone, excess heat and hailstorm have become common. Crops respond differently to increase in CO₂ concentration. Both abiotic and biotic stresses due to global warming are likely to reduce productivity of pulses/pulse based cropping systems through adverse effects on crop growth and development. Birthalet al. (2014) reported higher decrease in grain yield of pulses(pigeonpea and chickpea) as compared to cereals (rice and wheat) due to rise in the minimum and the maximum temperature.

Introduction

Pulses are pivotal and integral component of Indian agriculture and are excellent crops for natural resources management, environment security, crop diversification consequently for viable agriculture. India contributes 25 percent of the global production but has to import pulses to the home to the tune of 3.5mt every year to meet domestic requirement. In spite of largest area for chickpea, pigeon pea, lentil, dry beans & total pulses in the world, India’s’position in average productivity has never been decent i.e.25^th rank in chickpea, 19^th in Pea & 98^th in total pulses. This indicates that except chick pea & pigeon pea, the average productivity of the country is significantly lower than average yield of the world. To make India self sufficient in pulse production, the productivity level has to increase more than1200 kg/ha. by 2020. This gigantic task needs rigorous development & promotional efforts to transfer agro-technology packages in crop improvement and crop management, which are capable of doubling the present level of productivity Nanda et al. (1999) and Nanda

Technologiocal intervention is essential for improving pulse productivity through introduction of suitable high yielding varieties (Masood Ali and Shiv Kumar 2009). This is only possible through: (i) development of high yielding varieties with multiple resistance/tolerance to major diseases like mung bean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV), powdery mildew (PM) and Cercospora in mung bean and urdbean; (ii) development of varieties having resistance and tolerance to pre-harvest sprouting in mung bean, (iii) development of efficient plant type with high biomass and harvest index, (iv) development of varieties suited for intercropping system, (v) broadening genetic base of developed varieties, (vi) development of 50-55 days varieties of mung bean having 1 tonne/ha productivity and resistance to YMV for summer cultivation, (vii) development of high yielding and early maturity varieties of peas having resistance to powdery mildew, (viii) developing rajmash genotypes resistant to bean common mosaic virus and sclerotia rot, tolerant to high/low temperature and shattering resistance are important ones for increasing production through varieties intervention (AICRP MuLLaRP, http://iipr.res.in/mullarp).

Ribbed gourd (Luffa acutangula (L) Roxb.) belonging to the family Cucurbitaceae is a well known vegetable variety in India. The seed production can be done in both summer and rainy season.
Method of seed production

Bitter gourd is a cross-pollinated crop which occurs through bees. Seeds should be allowed to set by open-pollination in isolation. The isolation distance maintained between the fields of other varieties and the fields of the same variety not conforming to the varietal purity requirements for certification is 1000 metres for foundation and 500 metres for certified seed production.

Pulses are gaining more important position in Indian agriculture. After green revolution, India became self sufficient in case of food grain production. However, India is still lagging behind in case of pulses production and is dependent on imports for the domestic consumption in present days. As there is little scope to increase area under pulse, the production can be increased by enhancing the productivity by various agro techniques. Among various factors which limit the pulse production and productivity, poor weed management at the early stages of crop growth, is one of them( Dash et al., 2003 and Dash & Mishra, 2014). Yield loss due to weed have been enumerated by different workers at different places to the tune of 20-65 per cent depending upon the crop growth stages, weed intensities and environment conditions. There are many methods available to control the weed menace at different crop growth stages but the integrated weed management (IWM) is considered to be a more practical and effective approach in the long run since combination of methods will take care of weeds in totality and prevents seed production of weeds and enrichment of soil seed bank (Das, 2008). IWM also provides continuous control of weeds over the crop growth stages than a single method in isolation. Hence application of suitable organic herbicide supplemented with one/two manual weeding are being advocated to control the weeds. Other weeding practices like hoeing, inter- cultivation, mowing, earthing up, weeding by mechanical weeder etc. may be substituted or supplemented to the manual weeding. IWM also reduces the modern day weed problems like weed shift, herbicide resistance, and preponderance of perennial and parasitic weed problems. Under high cropping intensity adoption of IWM practices always generate higher income and maximum profit to the growers.

Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) is a widely grown vegetable variety in India. It is one of the important members of the family Cucurbitaceae. The seed production can be done throughout the year in tropical climate and during spring, summer and rainy season in subtropical climates. In Tamil Nadu September – October is suitable for seed production. In hills seed production can be done during summer season.

Abstract

The East Coast of Tamil Nadu exhibits a spectacular network of deltas formed by the easterly flowing river systems. The study of raw and digitally enhanced Landsat TM and IRS data shows, that these deltas were formed due to multivariate dynamic processes of fluvial, marine and aeolian actions. The wide fan shaped delta observed northwest and north of Madras city spanning out over an area of 700 sq.km is a feature, standing testimony to the PaleoCauvery river systems.

The regional slope and the overall arcuate arrangement of the crescent shaped lakes in the area and the tentacles of paleochannels show, that it is overall a fan shaped delta and its successive growth towards the sea might have been due to the constant progradation of lobes by continuous reworking of preceding lobes. The depressions in between successive concentric lobes have become the lakes. The absence of any beach ridges in such palaeo deltaic regime suggests that, it would be a sub aerial delta only. The overall arcuate shape of the shoreline in between Madras city in the south and Pulicat lake in the north is due to this fan delta. This feature once again symbolises the active river dominated delta. The Palar delta is a ‘cuspate’ one. The Ponnaiyar river has developed a linear delta, along a narrow depression found in between Tertiary uplands. While the avulsion phenomenon indicates the ancient shoreline near Villupuram, the east-west trending micro sandy uplands within the delta suggest, that it is a tide dominated delta.

Botany: The ash gourd(Benincasa hispida) belonging to the family cucurbitaceae is an annual creeping vine that can either climb structures or be allowed to spread out on the ground. This plant features large green leaves and thick stems covered with coarse hairs. The showy, golden yellow blooms appear early in the summer, and female flowers give way to round or spherical fruits. Young ash gourds are covered with a soft down that disappears with maturity. Fully matured gourds have a white, waxy coating covering the surface.

Field preparation:The field selected for seed production must not have been sown with ashguard in the previous season. This is done to avoid volunteer plants that cause admixture.After proper ploughing, at a spacing of 2.5 x 2 m distance take pits having 45 cm length, width and height. Ten days after that, apply 10 kg FYM and urea 30 g. Super phosphate 72 g and potash 19 g per pit. Then mix the above nutrients with soil and fill the pits and level them.

Soil and climate:Soil with neutral pH must be selected. Loam or clay loam soils are best suited. Higher organic matter will lead to production of vigorous seed.Seed is very sensitive to whether. Hence selecting the right season is necessary. Though ashgourd can grow through out the year, seed crop should be grown such that the seed matures in cool dry climate. This will facilitate proper ripening of fruits and reduce the pest and disease infection. Seasons are selected with this idea in mind. In

Abstract

Satellite photographs depict exciting evidence on the migratory melodrama of river systems. A study has been conduced in parts of Tamil Nadu using IRS-IA Satellite pictures, archaeology and Tamil literature, which reveals that from Pleistocene to 2700 years B.P.(Before Present) the river Cauvery flowed in a northeasterly direction from the Stanley reservoir via Chinnar, Palakkodu, Mattur, Tiruppathur (Tiruppattur), Gudiyatham (Gudiyattam), Vellore and Walajapet to meet the sea at Madras. From 2700 to 2300 years B.P., it flowed via Uttangarai and Tirukkovilur to meet the bay of Bengal near Pondicherry, over which the present-day Ponnaiyar is a misfit stream . From 2300 to 1300 year B.P. it has flowed via Erode, Tirukkampuliyur, Alagarai , Tiruchy, Kiranur and Pudukkottai meeting the sea in the region where the present-day Agniar and Ambuliar meet the sea. Subsequently, between 1600 and 1300 years B.P., the Cauvery flowed along the present-day tracts of the Vennar and Vettar, after which it seems to have flowed as the Kodamurutti, Arasalar and PalanCauvery from 1300 to 1000 years B.P. From about 900 years B.P. it flowed via Tirupurampayam (Tirupurambiyam), Achalpuram till around 750 years B.P. and then it is stabilised as the Colleroon (Kollidam). Such periods and phases of river migration as well as their implications in the search for archaeological remains are discussed in this paper.

Much has been talked about the mighty river systems and their migratory histories, since Purana and Vedic times. In Mahabharata the places where the Lord Krishna is said to have played with Gopis in the banks of River Yamuna are now forming flat lands many kilometers away from the present day Yamuna. In the same way, there is a mention in ancient literature about the ‘Indo-Brahm’ river which was originated from the Himalayas and flown through Brahmaputra valley, Indo-Gangetic plains, Rajasthan desert and met the Arabian Sea in Rann of Kutch. Such a mighty river is said to have fragmented into Brahmaputra, Ganges and the Indus rivers due to Tectonic activity in Himalayan regions. Similarly there are many evidences in the Tamil literature. For example in ‘Kalingathuparani’ it is mentioned that the river ‘Palar’ was flowing north of Kanchipuram but the same river is now flowing south of it.

All these facts show that the rivers have the tendency to frequently change their courses. The advent of modern Remote Sensing Technology has opened up new vistas in studying such migratory rhythms of the rivers, as such old and buried rivers exhibit spectacular ribbon like, linear, curvilinear and contorted features with typical darker tone in black and white images and reddish tone in false color composites (FCC) and other color coded images.

Abstract

The art of remote sensing has opened up many vistas in the study of river migration as satellite photographs, both in their normal and digitally enhanced modes, vividly show the rivers and their migratory signatures. The rivers migrate for various reasons amongst which tectonic movement is one of the main causes. In the present study an attempt has been made to exhibit the palaeochannel network of the rivers of Western India and integrate them with lineament fabric, so as to understand the Quaternary tectonics of the region. The study has shown that Western India shows considerable signs of Quaternary tectonics.

Abstract

The anomalies observed in the reverine systems have been demonstrated to be the potential tool in deciphering the tectonically active zones. Such various drainage anomalies viz: radial drainages, anomalous compressed meanders, eyed drainage and the youthful floodplains observed in Annamali – Palani - Varushanad hill ranges of the Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu show that the N-S and NE-SW trending faults are tectonically active in the recent years.

Abstract

It has been established beyond doubt that the drainage architecture and the fluvial histories of river systems give excellent indications not only on the surficial lithology but also on the ongoing morphotectonic processes of the planet earth. Among the various drainage patterns, the ‘eyed drainage’ pattern is considered to be one of the most significant anomalies and such ‘mega eyed’ drainages interpreted from IRS-IA imagery in some of the major river systems in Tamil Nadu, Indian Peninsula, are found to signify ongoing tectonic movements in an otherwise seismically inert shield area.

Abstract

Satellite imagery interpretation has shown the existence of a major Palaeochannel system in the Great Indian desert. These palaeochannels belong to the mythological Sarasvati river, which seems to have flowed southwesterly close to the Aravalli hill ranges and joined the sea in the Great Rann of Kutch. Subsequently it seems to have shifted northwesterly, and more precisely in an anti-clockwise direction and got buried in the desert in Anupgarh plains. While its oldest course is the now misfit Luni river, its final trace is now represented by Ghaggar river. Whereas its overall northwesterly migration is attributed to NE-SW trending cymatogenic arching along the Great Rann of Kutch in the southwest to the Siwalik hills in the northeast, its multivariate palaeodrainage is attributed to block faulting and land subsidence in the Bikaner sector.

Abstract

The recent earth movements and the related seismicities in the Southern part of the Indian Peninsula has been a matter of enigma for a century and more. While one school was strongly holding the opinion that the southern Indian Peninsula is free from recent earth movements as it is a shield area, the other school has narrated the possibilities for the ongoing earth movements. Under these circumstances, the various anomalies observed from satellite data and ground based information on geomorphology, subsurface lithology, geophysics, hydrogeology, geochemistry etc. have suggested a possible Pleistocene / Holocene graben along Pondicherry in the northeast and Cumbum Valley in the southwest in the southern tip of the Indian Peninsula.

The geologists of the Indian subcontinent have all along been of the opinion, that, the southern part of the Indian Peninsula is a stable shield area. But, the recently acquired IRS-1A image of June, 1988 vividly displays spectacular geomorphic anomalies suggesting that this part of the Indian subcontinent is prone to earth movements. In order to unearth more evidences on such earth movements / neotectonism in Tamil Nadu, the IRS-1A image of Coromandel coast of Tamil Nadu was analysed ( Fig. 1).

OBSERVATIONS

• The IRS-1A image conspicuously displays three contrasting morphotectonic domains in the study area marked by the western undissected Tertiary upland (Vallam upland), central highly dissected Tertiary upland (Pattukottai -Mannargudi upland) and the eastern Cauvery delta (Fig 1 and 2). These three domains are separated by two conspicuous N-S trending lineaments (E and F, Fig.1 and 2) namely the Tanjavur - Avadaiyarkovil lineament in the west and Kumbakonam -Muttupet lineament in the east.
• In addition, two more E-W trending lineaments (G and H, Fig.1 and 2) are also observed trifurcating the undissected Vallam upland into three blocks.
• Along these lineaments, especially the Tanjavur -Avadaiyarkovil and Kumbakonam -Muttupet lineaments, the rivers show conspicuous drainage anomalies in the form of drainage deflection, drainage compression etc., wherever they transect the lineaments.

Botanical description :Botanically, cluster bean is known as Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L) Taub. (2n = 2x = 14) belongs to the family Papilionaceae.

Floral biology :Cluster bean is a self-pollinated crop having about 9 percent maximum natural out crossing. The plants are normally fully fertile, a few semi-sterile ones have also been reported.

Isolation distance :Cluster bean is a self-pollinated crop. Isolation distance of 50 metres for foundation and 25 metres for certified seed is essential.

Sowing :Cluster bean can be sown twice in a year, February - March in Northern plains and December - January in Southern plains.

Seed rate : In order to sow one hectare area about 30-40 kg seed of cluster bean is required.

Nutrition : The yield of cluster bean has been maximum when the crop was applied with 40 kg nitrogen and 60 kg phosphorus per hectare. The application of micronutrient to cluster bean crop proves very beneficial. Two sprays of molybdenum at 0.15 percent at 15 and 30 days after seedlings emergence give better yield.

Abstract

The southern part of the Indian Peninsula has long been regarded as a stable area free from Pleistocene tectonics as it represents the Precambrian shield region. But the frequent earth tremors even up to a magnitude of 6.5 (Richter scale) which occurred in Tamil Nadu have started encouraging the geologists to think that it could possibly be a seismic prone zone. In addition, images acquired by the polar orbiting satellites offered valuable information on the fracture systems and fluvial anomalies suggesting possible Pleistocene tectonism in South India. Hence, a study has been undertaken to evaluate the signatures of Pleistocene tectonism in South India using IRS-lA, LISS-1 FCC imagery (Indian Remote Sensing Satellite lA, Linear Imaging Self Scanning 1, False Colour Composite) involving band 2, 3 and 4 under blue, green and red bands respectively.

The study has brought out a series of E-W trending cymatogenic arches and N-S trending extension, NE-SW trending sinistral, NW-SE trending dextral and E-W trending release fractures with characteristic signatures supporting Pleistocene tectonism in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

On the basis of such morphotectonic features, a Pleistocene tectonic model has been presented with a N-S trending greatest principal stress and an E-W oriented least principal stress related to the movement of the Indian plate towards the Tibetan plate. Based on the model developed for Tamil Nadu and Kerala, a series of E-W trending cymatogenic arches and deeps have been proposed for Cochin- Rameswaram in the south to the Himalayas in the north. Further studies for seismotectonics, geothermal resources and hydrocarbon search have also been suggested along such arches and deeps.

Abstract

The tectonics of the geological past from Archaeozoic to early part of Cenozoic era has been studied due to their penetrative documentation in the form of folds and faults. But the tectonic history of the latter part of the Cenozoic era (i.e Pleistocene period) has remained a matter of conjecture owing to the poor response of the rocks to Pleistocene movements. In the present study the authors presented a model for the Pleistocene earth movements of South India through the study of river migration, coast line changes and lineament fabric derived from the space borne photographs.

In the area of study, the northerly migration of Paleru and Pennar and southerly shift of Palar, Ponnaiyar and Cauvery rivers, marine regressions restricted within this segment and the closely spaced crest line fractures suggest a lineament controlled E-W trending Quaternary upwarping along Mangalore-Madras alignment. Similar E-W cymatogeny is inferred in the southern tip of the Peninsular India on the basis of once again such observations. Such E-W trending Pleistocene arching phenomenon suggests a N-S oriented regional compression which could be related to the collision of Indian plate with Tibetan plate.