eChapters

3.1 Introduction

Nature has a provision for destroying and disposing off wastes and dead plants and animals. This decay or decomposition is carried out by tiny micro-organisms called bacteria. Making of farm-yard manure (FYM) and compost is also through decomposition of organic matter (OM). When a heap of vegetable or animal waste and weeds etc., die or decompose at the bottom of backwater or shallow lagoons, bubbles can be noticed rising to the surface of water. Sometimes these bubbles burn with dancing flame at dusk. This phenomenon has puzzled man for a long time. It was only during the past hundred years that Scientists unlocked this secret as the decomposition process. The gas thus produced was and is still called “Marsh Gas.” The technology of harnessing this gas under artificially created conditions is known as Biogas Technology.

Introduction

The ancient agriculture as an each class of advice has been well connected into several subcategories. As such, the advice under centennial sub-category has been divided to a few references, in adjustment with proper specification not to access only the aggregate of the publication. However, the information on past day agriculture to attending for data has been collected from the adapted references. There are several pictures assuming seeds of cereals and legumes and those of a collection of agricultural tools and implements begin in archaeological excavation and office texts. These are mentioned to advance how accurate to accept in aggregate of every fragment of advice and verify it from added sources more than one. The painstaking and thorough going work have revealed the state of agriculture during the period under study and its gradual development through the ages. The recorded findings are no doubt those have not been comparable with present-day agriculture. The awareness of the people engaged in agriculture regarding the types of food-crops to be grown, the animals to be domesticated and reared for agricultural operations as well as sources of food and nutrition, the design and preparation of tools and implements for agricultural operations and machineries for food processing unfolds gradually with experience gathered in course of time. The agriculture in past period wherein the population was predominantly pastoral and agricultural such great strides were noticeable in the pursuit of agricultural sciences with a sound traditional and scientific practice. Therefore, the recognizable endeavor throughout the period gives sufficient reasons to be proud of cultural continuity towards agricultural heritage.

Rural Indian women are extensively involved in agricultural activities. In rural Uttarakhand, women contribute about 90 per cent of the total work in agriculture and animal care. Women’s participation rate in the State’s economy is much higher than in several states and the national average. In Uttarakhand, women’s role ranges from managers to landless labourers. Women’s average contribution is 55% to 66% of the total labour in overall farm production, with percentages higher in certain regions. From a demographic perspective, nearly 17% of households are women, higher than the national data (~11%). The main reason for this shift is migration other than divorce, separation or widowhood.

Introduction

Tumaria wetland (29° 18' N & 78° 57'E) is a manmade wetland near Corbett Tiger Reserve, Nainital district, Uttarakhand (Figure 1). It was constructed in the year 1961 and has an average depth of 3.1 m. It was mainly used for irrigation, fish production and has been a favorite place for several migratory birds during winter season (Bhattacharjee and Bargali, 2013; Bhattacharjee,2014). Tumaria bears a humid subtropical climate; emprises hot and dry summer which commences from early October to the mid of June. The area experience wet season from the mid of June to early October and then feels the cold winter. The reservoir catchment area is 284.16 sq. km and its north area is covered with thick, reserved forest of Jim Corbett National Park (Figure 2). The infestation of Salvinia weed is one of the major problems being faced by this wetland.

The exotic free-floating weed, Giant Salvinia (Salvinia molesta Mitchell), belongs to Salviniaceae family and is a native of south-eastern Brazil (Forno, 1983). It is commonly known as water fern, water weed, Kariba weed or water spangle and African payal in India (Jones, 1987). During the past 50 years, it has widely extended throughout the world and has infester the areas of Australia, New Zealand, Africa, southern USA, the Indian subcontinent, south-east Asia and some Pacific islands (Thomas and Room, 1986) (Figure 3). In India, it was f irst established in the state of Kerala since early 1970s (Cook, 1976; Thomas, 1976 and 1979). This aquatic weed has invaded in various aquatic habitats, such as lakes, wetland, rivers, reservoirs and paddy fields.

1.1 Introduction
Meteorology, at its heart, is the scientific endeavor dedicated to understanding the Earth’s atmosphere and the myriad phenomena that occur within it. More than just the art of predicting whether it will rain tomorrow, meteorology is a robust interdisciplinary science. It intricately weaves together principles from physics, chemistry, and mathematics to unravel the complexities of atmospheric processes. From the gentle caress of a breeze to the formidable power of a hurricane, meteorology seeks to explain the underlying mechanisms that drive our ever-changing weather and long-term climate patterns.
The study of meteorology encompasses a wide array of atmospheric characteristics. Meteorologists delve into the composition of the atmosphere, examining the various gases and tiny particles known as aerosols that reside within it. They also investigate its vertical structure, distinguishing between layers like the troposphere, where most weather occurs, and the stratosphere, home to the ozone layer. The motion of the atmosphere, manifested as wind systems ranging from local gusts to global circulations, is a central focus. Furthermore, meteorology explores the thermodynamics of the atmosphere, including how heat is transferred and how temperature changes, as well as the role of water in the atmosphere, from humidity to the formation of clouds and precipitation – the realm of atmospheric hydrology. Even the captivating
optical phenomena we sometimes witness, such as rainbows and halos, fall under the purview of meteorological inquiry.

Carbon sequestration implies removing atmosphere carbon and storing it in natural reservoirs for extended periods (Lal, 2011). Soil carbon sequestration is the process of transferring carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into the soil through crop residues and other organic solids, and in a form that is not immediately remitted. This transfer or “sequestering” of carbon helps off-set emissions from fossil fuel combustion and other carbon-emitting activities while enhancing soil quality and long-term agronomic productivity. Soil carbon has gained increased interest in the recent past owing to its importance in carbon sequestration studies and its potential impact on sustainable crop production. However, accuracy in estimating soil carbon sequestration to determine best management practices is hindered by inherent variability of soil properties (Srinivasarao et al., 2008 and 2009b). Maintaining or arresting the decline in soil organic matter (SOM) is the most potent weapon in fighting against soil degradation and for ensuring sustainability of agriculture in tropical regions. In India, 65 per cent of agriculture is rainfed, covering the categories of arid, semi-arid and sub-humid climatic zones. Consequences of depletion of organic matter are poor soil physical health, loss of favorable biology and occurrence of multiple nutrient deficiencies. It was stated that in rainfed arid, semi-arid and sub-humid tracts, next to poor rain water management, depletion of nutrients caused by organic matter deficiency is an important cause of soil degradation. Improving organic matter is, therefore, crucial to sustenance of soil quality and future agricultural productivity. Humus is known to favor many useful physical, chemical and biological processes that occur within the soil (Srinivasarao et al., 2011c). Accordingly, 

1. Introduction

Fisheries is an important sector of food production which besides providing nutritious food to millions also serve as a livelihood option for many. It helps to bring about people centered rural development that protects the environment. Conventionally, fishing has been considered a male domain, because of the assumption that social, cultural, or religious taboos prevent women from participating in fishing activities. In fact, the involvement of women in fishing and related activities has remained invisible and unrecognized till the late 1980s. However, the publications and policy reports during the period highlighted the valued contributions by women in fisheries sector to economies and food security around the world (Harper et al., 2020). Several high-level fisheries reports and policy instruments that followed added to this momentum and emphasized the importance of principles of gender equality in ensuring sustainable coastal livelihood security. Present day estimates indicate that there are around 60 million people who are directly engaged in the primary sector of fisheries and aquaculture globallyof which 14 per cent are women (FAO, 2018) Asia tops the list with the highest number of fishers and aquaculture workers (85 per cent of the world total), followed by Africa (9 per cent), America (4 per cent) and Europe and Oceania (1 per cent each) (FAO, 2018). However, despite growing attention to women and gender in fisheries there exits glaring gap in the gender disaggregated data from fisheries sector that is skewed against women worldwide. These warrant the need for the implementation gender balanced fisheries policies and management strategies that support women empowerment in the sector.

Introduction

Because of their incredible diversity of life and amazing distinctiveness, coral reefs are frequently referred to as the "Tropical Rainforests of the Sea". Reefs are vast biological treasure troves that provide millions of people throughout the world with a variety of economic and environmental services. Corals are useful and beautiful things that are members of the phylum Anthozoa. The massive reefs that are only visible at low tides are built by hermatypic corals and their symbiotic zooxanthellae. Corals are only found in the ocean and, taxonomically speaking, are part of the scleratinia order.

The solitary forms, known as ahermatypes, are both solitary and colonial and lack symbionts. Corals that form reefs are actively growing in the ocean's photic zone. Around the world, a belt of coral reefs can be seen in the tropical waters. Coral reefs are of immense importance, but due to both natural and man-made influences, they are rapidly degrading and disappearing at an alarming rate. By 2030, 90% of the reefs would be in danger if current rates of erosion are permitted to continue. It is crucial to comprehend the coral reefs' current state of health and the growing dangers to them. The study's goals are to examine management and conservation strategies and shed knowledge on the expanding issue of coral exploitation (Jhajhria, 2021).

Nano-bioinoculants represent a novel class of agricultural inputs that integrate beneficial microorganisms with nanotechnology-based delivery systems to enhance microbial stability, nutrient efficiency, and plant performance. While these formulations offer promising solutions for sustainable agriculture, their environmental implications require careful evaluation due to the inclusion of engineered nanomaterials. This chapter critically examines the environmental impact of nano-bioinoculants, focusing on their interactions with soil, water, air, plants, and higher trophic levels. The mechanisms governing nanoparticle behavior in soil matrices, effects on indigenous microbial communities, potential for bioaccumulation and trophic transfer, and risks of aquatic and atmospheric contamination are discussed. Positive environmental outcomes, including reduced dependence on chemical fertilizers and pesticides, improved soil health, enhanced nutrient use efficiency, and increased plant resilience to abiotic stresses, are highlighted alongside potential risks such as microbial disruption, nanoparticle persistence, oxidative stress induction, and long-term ecological uncertainty. The chapter further addresses human health considerations, risk assessment frameworks, ecotoxicological testing approaches, and existing regulatory gaps at national and international levels. Real-world case studies illustrate both the benefits and environmental concerns associated with nano-bioinoculant applications. Finally, future perspectives emphasize the development of biodegradable nanocarriers, integration with precision agriculture technologies, and the need for harmonized regulatory frameworks. Overall, this chapter provides a balanced assessment of nano-bioinoculants, supporting their responsible development and deployment for environmentally sustainable agriculture.

Dairy farming has been the backbone of the agriculture and rearing of livestock for milk/milk products and draft power has been the tradition of ancient rural India. Whenever the crops have failed miserably attributed to natural calamities, the livestock has emerged the savior of farmers providing livelihood security in rural India. India is a country of villages (640930 villages) and 68.84% population of India is living in villages as per the All India Census, 2011. Further, 41.8% rural population is below poverty line as compared to 25.7% urban population (Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics, 2012). The marginal and small farmers are rearing 71.7% of total livestock revealing that livestock has been the source of sustainable livelihood security for rural poor majority of which falling under the category of population below poverty line.

M-Agriculture

Mobile phones have changed the scenario of telecommunication. It is a source of communication for fast dissemination of information. Today, mobile usage has enabled farming communities to access agricultural and other business information without travelling long distances or reducing costs, time and money. Keeping in view the lower ratio of the farmer to the extension worker (1000: 1) and the inability of the extension workers to guide the farmers as per their information needs, the new concept of m-Agriculture (m-Krishi) has emerged at the beginning of twenty-first century all over the world including India.

Introduction

In recent decades, economic reforms centred around liberalization, privatization, and globalization have emerged as fundamental drivers of economic transformation on a global scale. These reforms represent a departure from traditional state-centric economic models, emphasizing market-oriented approaches and greater integration into the global economy. This introduction sets the stage for a deeper exploration of the interconnectedness and impact of these reforms on economies worldwide, highlighting their significance in shaping the contemporary economic landscape.

Historical Background

During the 1980s, India found itself facing an economic crisis characterized by a gradual decline in its economy. By the decade's end in 1990, the country was plunged into a severe Balance of Payments (BOP) crisis. This crisis was caused by a mounting fiscal deficit and escalating overvaluation of the currency. Compounding matters, the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq occurred in the same year, triggering a significant spike in oil prices and a corresponding drop in remittances from Indian expatriate workers. The resultant increase in the cost of purchasing oil and the rapid decrease in net factor income from abroad exacerbated India's economic woes.

Introduction

Breeders expect a new variety to show high performance for yield and its contributing characters along with other physiological and nutritional traits. A variety is said to be superior not only for its higher economic yield, but also for its consistent performance over a wide range of environmental conditions. But the performance of a particular variety is the resultant of its genetic constitution and the environment in which it has been grown. Particular variety may not exhibit same phenotypic performance under different environments, or different varieties may perform differently to a specific environment.

The basic cause of differences in the stability of different genotypes is the interaction effect of genotype and environment, known as genotype × environment (G × E) interaction (GEI). The term environment refers to the uncontrolled external conditions that affect expression of genes of an individual genotype such as the annual rainfall, dry spells, soil fertility gradients, waterlogging, depth and texture of soil, and photoperiod and incidence of disease or pests. However, prediction of GEI is seldom possible with available and known factors. Therefore, the environmental factors can be categorized as predictable and unpredictable environmental factors (Table 1).

Abstract
Aquatic ecosystems are seriously threatened by heavy metal pollution from urban, agricultural, and industrial processes. Aquatic animals can accumulate toxic metals like mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic and chromium, which can have detrimental physiological, ecological, and toxicological impacts. Oxidative stress, organ damage, poor reproduction, and disruption of ecosystem functioning, including loss of biodiversity and changes in food web dynamics, can all result from exposure to these contaminants. Human health is also at risk from heavy metals moving via aquatic food networks. The effects of heavy metal pollution on aquatic life are examined in this chapter, along with mitigation strategies.
Keywords: Heavy metals, pollution, toxicity, aquatic ecosystems and mitigation strategies

India produced 121.8 MT milk during the year 2011-12 and continued to rank first in world milk production. India contributed 16 % of world milk production. As per 2010 statistic, India with 12.5 % of world cattle population contributed 8.4 % in world cow milk and  with 56.7 % of world buffalo population contributed  67.45 % in world buffalo milk. In total milk production of India, contribution of crossbreds, indigenous cattle and buffalo were 23 %, 20% and 53%, respectively.

Table cream: It is also called coffee cream, single cream or homogenized cream. It is used in coffee and tests about 20% butter fat.

Table oil expeller: It is a type of the machine that is used for extraction of the oil from the oil seeds (Plate 230).

Q.1.    Under what situation, the exact sample tests are required to be used and who discovered it first time ?

Varietal release and notification comes under the purview of the Seeds Act which is intended to provide for regulating the quality of certain notified seeds for sale and for marketing and for the matters connected therewith. Released and notified varieties are offered for seed certification by the seed certification agencies which ensure that the varieties under certification meet certain prescribed field and seed standards failing which they stand to be rejected during the process of seed certification. This ensures seed quality and its availability to the farmers.

Purpose of Release

The purpose of Release of cultivars is to introduce the newly evolved varieties to the public and the farmers in particular for general cultivation in the region for which the variety is released and notified ensuring availability of seed of varieties according to their suitability and adaptation and avoiding mismatch. In other words, release of a cultivar is in the nature of a recommendation to the farmers for its adoption. Therefore, notification of a variety is linked to the release of a variety, though the release process itself does not have statutory cover.

Introduction

Fisheries

For millions of people, fishing and aquaculture continue to be vital food sources, nutrition, money, and livelihood. Fish is a good and economical source of animal protein, offering a solution to the nation's problems with hunger and malnutrition. The Indian fishing industry underwent progressive development throughout the years and developed into a significant socioeconomic factor for the country. India is the third-largest producer of fish and aquaculture, contributing roughly 16% of all inland fish production and 5% of all marine f ish production worldwide, (Department of Fishery, 2023).