eChapters

Non-Probability sampling methods are also known as non-random sampling methods or deliberate sampling. These types of methods are reliant on the researcher’s ability to select members at random. These sampling methods are not fixed or pre-defined selection processes making it difficult for all elements of the population to have equal opportunities to be included in the sample.

Types of non-probability sampling techniques

1. Judgmental or Purposive sampling

This technique involves the purposive selection of units of samples based on the judgement of the researcher. The researcher selects the sample on the basis of his a priori knowledge and experience.

Genomics-driven approaches to Genebank management

• Pre-breeding can facilitate the characterization and utilization of PGRs.

• Allele mining involves searching useful alleles of genes from a wide germplasm collection.

• Transformation of germplasm collections into bio-digital resource centres like

• DNA Barcoding,

• DNA fingerprinting.

Pre-breeding

• Pre-breeding is the step before practical breeding.

• Aim - To introduce new desirable traits/genes into an adapted genetic background. This will broaden the genetic base in a breeding material in pace with environmental changes.”

• The main link between the germplasm conservation and its use in plant breeding

• A vital contribution of pre-breeding is increasing the total genetic diversity in crops and finding specific genes and traits.

• Main link between conservation of PGR in gene bank collections and utilisation of these resources in agriculture and horticulture.

• Essential for linking genetic diversity arising from wild relatives and other unimproved materials for utilization.

• These activities are a collaboration between germplasm curator and the plant breeder who need to work germplasm collections and how new traits from these collections can bred into new varieties.

Climate-resilient rural development is a critical priority for CMCs, given their vulnerability to climate change impacts such as floods, droughts, cyclones, and rising temperatures. This note explores case studies and success stories from some of the CMCs, highlighting innovative approaches, community- driven initiatives, and policy interventions that enhance climate resilience in rural areas. The examples draw from documented projects, emphasizing practical outcomes and lessons learned. Case studies of specific CMCs 1. Bangladesh: Saemaul Zero Hunger Communities (SZHC) Project In central Bangladesh, the Saemaul Zero Hunger Communities (SZHC) project (2014-2017) focused on 19 flood-prone villages to strengthen resilience to climate shocks and improve food security (UNDP, 2018). Implemented in collaboration with local communities

Okra is predominantly a crop of tropics and subtropics.  It occupies fifth position, next to tomato, in area under vegetables in the country with a production of 33.24 lakh metric tonnes from an area of 3.47 lakh hectares.  The crop is cultivated for its young tender fruits, used in curry and soups after cooking. It is a good source of vitamins A and B, protein and minerals. It is also an excellent source of iodine and is useful for the treatment of goitre.  Fruit is useful against genito-urinary disorders, spermetorrhoea and chronic dysentery. Fruits are also dried or frozen for use during off-season.  Dried fruit contain 13-22% edible oil and 20-24% protein and is used for refined edible oil.  Dry fruit skin and fibres are used in manufacture of paper, card board and fibres.  Root and stem are used for clearing cane juice for preparation of jaggary.

Genus : Mangifera 
Species : indica L.
Family : Anacardiaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 40

In the early Sanskrit literature  Amra, mango was known to Indian at very early times. Mango occupies an important place in the Hindu mythology as well as in various religious observances. Various archaeological discoveries also mention the presence of Mango in India. Alexander the Great in 327 BC during his invasion found mango cultivation in the Indus Valley. The Buddhist and Chinese pilgrims in their travel notes have also indicated mango cultivation. Amir Khusru a famous Turkoman poet has quoted ‘Mango as the pride of garden, the choicest fruit of Hindustan’. During the Mogul Emperors, mango occupied an important place in fruit culture. The Ain-e-Akbari an encyclopaedia work written during the rule of Akbar, gives detail account of mango, varietal characteristics, quality etc. In praise of mango, British authors lavished huge praise and designated it as King of Fruits and that the Goa mango is perhaps the largest and most delicious, wholesome and best tasted of any fruit

Introduction

In spite of considerable progress achieved during the last three decades in horticulture production in India, the average productivity of different horticultural crops is quite low as compared to the best yields at national and world level. This indicates the scope to enhance the yield in different horticultural crops by many fold along with its quality specially in vegetables. This is because of an appealing gap between potential yield and the actual yield of various vegetable crops. For many vegetable crops, the yields realized are even less than 50% of their potential yield. Some time the farmers who are growing their horticultural crops during main season are even not getting back their cost of production, but the prices of the same horticulture produce is very high during off season. Several biotic and abiotic stresses are the major factors for low productivity and poor quality in several horticultural crops under their open field cultivation during rainy and post rainy season more specifically in vegetables. The increasing demand of off-season and high quality vegetables in various markets of the big cities has calls the attention of the vegetable growers for diversification from traditional way of vegetable cultivation or from traditional agriculture.

Initially, exploitation of heteosis was confined to corn and a few other open- pollinated crops but presently heterosis is being exploited practically in all species cutting across mode of reproduction. More and more evidences are emerging that heterotic expression in a cross is a function of genetic backgrounds and genes. Heterotic grouping would remain a key strategy in management of diverse genetic backgrounds and genes for full exploitation of heterosis. The commonly used methods in developing hybrids in self- pollinated crops are listed and explained as follows:

Manual emasculation and Pollination Method

In this method, female parent flower buds are emasculated manually and the emasculated buds are pollinated by the pollen grain collected from protected flowers of the male parent. This method is effective and successful where the crossed fruits produce plenty of seeds and the seed requirement for planting the commercial hybrid seed is much less. Consequently, this method is being used in a routine manner on a commercial scale in vegetable crops mostly by private sector seed companies in India and south-east Asian countries. The crops covered under this method of hybrid seed production are as follows:

Tomato, hot-pepper, sweet pepper, eggplant, okra, bottle gourd, bitter gourd, ridge gourd, smooth gourd, cucumber, pumpkin, water melon and muskmelon. Cucurbits are included here as although they are cross-pollinated but behave like self-pollinated crops in terms of almost no inbreeding depression.

19.1 INTRODUCTION

Indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals over the last five decades has adversely affected soil fertility, crop productivity, produce quality and particularly the environment. These degenerative effects of intensive agriculture have compelled to think for alternative and sustainable system of agriculture. As a result, number of alternative systems viz Biodynamic, Rishi Krishi, Panchagavya Krishi, Natueco Organic Farming, Homa Organic Farming, Natural Farming and Jaivik Krishi have emerged in different parts of the country. In organic farming production is achieved without use of chemical input (Singh, 2011 and Malik, 2000). In these systems, maximum reliance is placed on self-regulatory agro systems and locally available or farm derived renewable resources. Since the soil, water and environment have been contaminated, hence even organic production techniques once effective are now are not capable of mitigating these issues. This has created number of myths in the mind of policy makers and even large number of farmers.

Ridge gourd or Ribbed gourd (Luffa acutangula Rox b. L) and Sponge gourd or Smooth gourd (Luffa cylindrica) have diploid chromosome number  2n=2x=26. Luffa has old world origin in Subtropical Asian region including India (Kalloo, 1993). These two species are inter-crossable. F1 plants generally, intermediate between the parents and showed various irregularities like, univalants, rings and chains of 4 chromosomes, chromatids bridges and fragments at metaphase and thus the species are not easily crossable and the F1 plants appear to be of not much practical value. The genus is monoecious annual vine, tendrils are branched, flowers are yellow, anthers are free and pistil has three placentas with many ovules and stigma are three and bilobate. Fruits oblong or cylindrical and rind becomes dry on maturity.

Introduction

Commercial pig farming in India is one of the best and profitable business ideas for the Indian people. There are several highly meat producing pig breeds available around the globes. Some of those are very suitable for commercial meat production according to the weather and climate of India. A few years back, pig farming had a bad image in the society, but at present at scenario has changed tremendously and commercial pig farming in India is no more restricted to lower class people. Now peoples are conscious about the economic value of pigs like other domestic livestock animals; and higher cast, educated people also started commercial pig farming business in a modern and scientific manner.

Among all domestic animals, pigs are the most prolific animal, giving 6-12 piglets in every litter and they are fast growing, attain a body weight of about 68 kg in about 6-8 months time, when they can slaughter. Pig has shortest generation interval among meat producing livestock. Pig products such as pork, bacon, ham, sausages, lord (pig fat) are increasingly in demand both for local consumption and for export. Pig skin used for the manufacture of light leather goods. Pig manure contains Nitrogen: 0.70%, Phosphorus: 0.60% and Potassium: 0.70%. Swine has superior feed conversion power (1: 3-3.5). Swine store fat rapidly. Pigs are prolific and bring quick return. A unit of 10 sows and 1 boar will produce about 160 piglets during the first year. Gilts may be bred between the ages of about 8-9 months furrowing when approximately 13 months old. Piggery enterprise requires moderate investment. Pig has highest dressing percentage (Pig: 65-80%) as compare to cattle (50-60%) and lamb and sheep (45-55%). Pork is the most nutritious meat. Pig is extremely sensitive to unfavorable ration and to careless management. Pigs are very susceptible to numerous diseases and parasites. Sow should required skilled attendants at the time of furrowing.

Yet now we have discussed probability sampling techniques in which sampling units are assigned with equal probabilities. But sometimes in practice if want to draw a sample with unequal probabilities i.e., every sampling unit is assigned with varying probabilities and we draw a sample from these units with the help of equal probability methods, then the results are not as much efficient as compared to unequal probability sampling.

Simple random sampling is a procedure wherein the chance of selection of every unit in the required sample is equal. However, the use of simple random sampling is not advisable when the units differ substantially in size as the significance of unit size is ignored.

The basic idea of this type of probability technique is that chance of each unit of a population being selected in the sampling is proportional to its size. The units vary significantly in size and the variable under study is largely related to the size of the unit. Therefore, the probabilities fixed for each unit are proportional to their sizes.

Site of Incision

Make an incision around the eyeball at the margin of orbit.Then remove the supraorbital process by cutting dorsal and ventral end to access inside the orbit. Remove all the attachments of eyeball from osseous orbit through carefull dissection. Then remove all the extraoccular and periorbital fat to expose the muscles of eyeball.

Ornamental horticulture is the branch of horticulture concerned with cultivating plants of all kinds for show and to satisfy the eye rather than for food (Bailey, 1960). It includes floriculture, the culture of trees for shades, display and landscape gardening. Gill (1988) defined taxonomy as a study aimed at producing a system of classification of biological organisms, which best reflects the totality of their similarities and differences. According to
him, there are three inter-related aspects of taxonomy namely: Identification, Nomenclature and Classification. Identification deals with the determination of a taxon as being identical or similar to another and already known organisms. Nomenclature on the other hand has to do with determination of the correct name for the organisms and is governed by International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. It permits only a single valid name for each plant. Classification is the placing of plants in groups or categories according to particular plan or system.
The objectives of taxonomy are to provide: a convenient method of identifying, naming and describing plants, a classification which as far as possible express the natural relationships of organisms, detect evolution at work, discovering its processes and interpreting its results, an inventory of plant resources-local, regional and continental and to provide an integrating and unifying role in the training of biology.

Objectives
• Understand the concept and structure of analogy-based questions.
• Recognize different types of analogies used in reasoning.
• Develop strategies to approach analogy questions effectively.
• Enhance critical thinking and problem-solving skills through practice.
Introduction
An analogy is a comparison between two things that highlights a relationship or similarity between them. Analogical reasoning is frequently used in verbal reasoning sections of competitive exams, as well as in day-to-day problemsolving.
In analogy-based questions, pairs of words are given, and the goal is to identifythe relationship between them and apply the same  relationship to another pair. Analogies test your ability to comprehend relationships, draw logical inferences, and think critically.
Structure of an Analogy Question
Typically, an analogy question follows this format:

1. Introduction

Sundarbans is claimed to be one of the wonders of the world for its natural resources of halophytic mangrove forest (some 34 species of true mangroves are present), biodiversity and ecosystem that form an extraordinary environment of the globe. Available brackish water environment of Sundarbans provides favourable substratum for algal communities (Naskar and Naskar, 2010). Enteromorpha intestinalis specifically is one of the algal species that is very abundant in the Sundarban region. The production of total seaweeds in India in 2000 was approximately 600,000 tons (wet weight). India produces 110-132 tons of dry agar annually utilizing about 880-1100 tons of dry agarophytes. The seaweed industry in India is mainly a cottage industry and is based only on the natural stock of agar-yielding red seaweeds, such as Gelidiella acerosa and Gracilaria edulis, and algin yielding brown seaweeds species such as Sargassum and Tubineria (Kaladharan and Kaliaperumal, 1999).

Investigational studies indicate that marine algae contain significant amount of nutraceuticals, vitamins, proteins, carbohydrates, fiber and antioxidants. Composition indicates that there is a tremendous scope for food and pharmaceutical applications. These may be used for food fortification but after rigorous studies. Formulation, standarizaiton and characterization should be performed before human use. Studies for exploitation of the bioactive components of the species may open up new avenues. Hence there seems to be a full scope for the realization of outcomes of the research. Further the utilization of the developed processes at higher scales may reap in financial benefits and may prove beneficial to the local people, who are supplier of the raw materials. The present study is an attempt to utilize this India variety of macro-algae for fortification of bakery food products.

Abstract

Demand for starch is increasing day by day and is met by restricted range of crops. In recent years, substantial progress has been made in obtaining starch from non-conventional sources such as sweet potato, buckwheat, sago, water chestnut, which can be used as a substitute for conventional sources. So it is necessary to search for other underutilized and nonconventional sources of starch to meet the increased demand. Typha angustifolia, an aquatic weed containing appreciable amount of starch in its rhizome and roots, can be used for starch isolation to make its use in food and non-food derivatives. In many parts of the world, starch-rich roots of Typha angustifolia are eaten raw or boiled or dried roots are pulverized into a powder, and then, used as a thickener in soups or added to cereal flours to make biscuits and bread.

Introduction

Avian salmonellosis is the term used to describe a large group of acute or chronic diseases caused by one or more members of the bacterial genus Salmonella, which is a member of the large family Enterobacteriaceae. Domestic poultry is known to constitute the largest single reservoir of Salmonella organism existing in nature. They include host specific and nonmotile members of the genus S. enterica subspp. enterica pullorum/gallinarum. If the infection of poultry is due to other Salmonella organisms other than Salmonella enteric subspp. enterica gallinarum/pullorum, the infection is then referred to as paratyphoid.

Introduction

Commercial pig farming in India is one of the best and profitable business ideas for the Indian people. There are several highly meat producing pig breeds available around the globes. Some of those are very suitable for commercial meat production according to the weather and climate of India. A few years back, pig farming had a bad image in the society, but at present at scenario has changed tremendously and commercial pig farming in India is no more restricted to lower class people. Now peoples are conscious about the economic value of pigs like other domestic livestock animals; and higher cast, educated people also started commercial pig farming business in a modern and scientific manner.

Among all domestic animals, pigs are the most prolific animal, giving 6-12 piglets in every litter and they are fast growing, attain a body weight of about 68 kg in about 6-8 months time, when they can slaughter. Pig has shortest generation interval among meat producing livestock. Pig products such as pork, bacon, ham, sausages, lord (pig fat) are increasingly in demand both for local consumption and for export. Pig skin used for the manufacture of light leather goods. Pig manure contains Nitrogen: 0.70%, Phosphorus: 0.60% and Potassium: 0.70%. Swine has superior feed conversion power (1: 3-3.5). Swine store fat rapidly. Pigs are prolific and bring quick return. A unit of 10 sows and 1 boar will produce about 160 piglets during the first year. Gilts may be bred between the ages of about 8-9 months furrowing when approximately 13 months old. Piggery enterprise requires moderate investment. Pig has highest dressing percentage (Pig: 65-80%) as compare to cattle (50-60%) and lamb and sheep (45-55%). Pork is the most nutritious meat. Pig is extremely sensitive to unfavorable ration and to careless management. Pigs are very susceptible to numerous diseases and parasites. Sow should required skilled attendants at the time of furrowing.

Strategies To Improve The Productivity Of Drylands

With renewed interest in rainfed agriculture during 1970s, both the national (AICRPDA and CRIDA) and international institutions (ICRISAT) have studied several aspects of rainwater management. Recommendations have been made after their through testing both at the research stations and on farmer’s fields. Initially these technologies were accepted by the farmers because of the pursuasion by the Scientists and the incentives, but many of them are forgotten once the support is withdrawn. It is now time for us to examine whether the technologies themselves were weak or certain components were missing. Malfunctioning of the software may be due to a bug right from the beginning or it entered into the system at a later stage. It is also possible that we neglected certain critical inputs which became major constraints making the system defunct. Whatever the reason it should be identified and set right if the technology has to continue as tool for tackling the challenges of rainfed agriculture.

Successful cultivation of a crop is governed by various factors including the edaphic and climatic conditions of the region, owing to which the crop responds in terms of quality and productivity. Pineapple (Ananas comosus L. Merr.) is one of the major crops cultivated across the tropical and sub tropical countries worldwide. Adaptability of the crop under different climatic conditions, topography, temperature, photo-periodicity, rainfall and edaphic conditions will be discussed in this chapter.

Climatic zone: Pineapple is a tropical fruit crop though it can thrive well in the sub-tropical condition as well.Pineapple grows well inwarm and humid climate ranging from mild coastal climate up to an altitude of about 1000 meters, provided the area is free from frost (Singh, 2014).Pineapple is commercially grown over a wide range of latitudes from 30° N (Assam, India) in the northern hemisphere to 33°S in the Southern hemisphere (South Africa) (Malezieux et al., 2003; Purseglove, 1972).

Topography: Pineapples are easy to cultivatesince they thrive naturally in a variety of places with different elevation, especially in tropical countries (Kaudo, 2014). Though the plant survives at different altitude, the fruit quality and size may alter at different elevation. When pineapple is grown at altitudes greater than 1000 m, smaller fruits with elevated tartness with less attractive pulp colour (Purseglove, 1968).Moreover, fruit flavour can also vary, wherein the fruit tends to bemore acidic and sour when cultivated above 1800 meters, but will be sweet and tasty under 1350 meters (Kaudo, 2014).

Temperature: On an average, the temperatures required for growing pineapples range within 18-30°C (Kaudo, 2014) andmore specifically at 23 - 24 ° C (Neild and Boshell, 1976; Py et al., 1987). The optimum day and night temperatures for pineapple were reported to be about 30°C and 20 °C, respectively (Neild and Boshell, 1976). Bartholomew and Kadzimin (1977), however have reported that leaves and roots grow best at 32°C and 29°C respectively and the growth practically ceases below 20°C and above 36°C. Py and Tisuucau (1965) have observed 25°C to be optimal for fruit ripening.