eChapters

1.     A fruit juice at 20°C with 10% total solids is concentrated in a single effect evaporator that is operated at a vacuum to allow the product moisture to evaporate at 80°C and steam with 82% quality is supplied at 169.06kPa. The desired concentration of the final product is 45% total solids and the concentrated product exits the evaporator at a rate of 300kg/hr. Calculate the steam requirement for the process when condensate is released at 90°C. The specific heat of liquid feed is 4.05 kJ/kg°C and of concentrated product is 3.175 kJ/kg°C.

(a) 3.35 kg/s

(b) 3.25 kg/s

(c) 4.25kg/s

(d) 2.35kg/s

2.     A double effect evaporator is being used to concentrate fruit juice at 35000kg/hr. The juice has 10% total solids at 80°C and requires to be concentrated to 50% total solids. The saturated steam at 1.608 atm is available. What is mass flow rate of water vapors?

(a) 7.505 kg/s

(b) 8.505 kg/s

(c) 5.707kg/s

(d) 6.808.kg/s

Aim

To study the numerical problems on grain moisture content and equilibrium moisture content.

Problem 1

Five hundred kilograms of paddy at 22% moisture content (wb) is dried to 14% moisture content (wb) for milling. Calculate the amount of moisture removed in drying.

8.1 Introduction

In the fields like Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Engineering and Economics; their laws and principles contains various parameters and their derivatives. The mathematical relationships of such parameters with their derivatives constitute the differential equations. In calculus, differential equations were firstly introduced by Newton and Leibnitz. Newton listed the three kinds of differential equations:

Man has tendency to classify everything in a hierarchical manner for example, ships may be classified on size, weight, what they carry or naval versus merchant or passenger. Any of these classification is as valid as any other.

But classification of biological species is unusual in that a predefined system exists i.e. the evolutionary relationships among organisms. But evolutionary relationships can only be estimated; and contrary to popular belief, even a good fossil record does not conclusively show the phylogeny or evolutionary tree of a group species.

Numerical taxonomy can be defined as “Numerical evaluation of the affinity or similarity between taxonomic units and ordering of these units into taxa on the basis of their affinities”. The term includes drawing of phylogenetic inferences from the data by statistical or other mathematical methods to the extent to which this should prove possible. The practice involves a number of fundamental assumptions and philosophical attitudes toward taxonomic work.

11.1 Introduction
Having explored the sophisticated statistical methods for analyzing meteorological data and the powerful visualization techniques for interpreting it, we now turn our attention to the very engine that drives modern weather forecasting: Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP). This chapter delves into the intricate science and technology behind predicting the future state of them atmosphere using mathematical models and supercomputers. The challenge of weather forecasting is immense. The Earth’s atmosphere is a chaotic, non-linear fluid system, constantly in motion, with interactions occurring across vast scales, from global circulation patterns to microscopic cloud droplets. For centuries, weather prediction relied heavily on empirical rules, human experience, and the interpretation of synoptic charts. While these methods achieved some success, they were inherently limited in their ability to accurately forecast beyond a day or two, especially for complex or rapidly evolving phenomena.
The visionary idea of predicting weather mathematically was first conceived by Lewis Fry Richardson in the early 20th century. He envisioned solving the fundamental equations governing atmospheric behavior using numerical methods. However, the sheer volume of calculations required made his manual attempts impractical, famously taking him weeks to produce a 6-hour forecast that had already passed. It was only with the advent of the electronic computer in the mid-20th century that Richardson’s dream began to materialize, marking the birth of modern NWP (Fig. 11.1).

9.1 Introduction Numpy

Numpy: is apython package which stands for “Numerical python”.

This was created in 2005 by Travis Oliphant.

Using numpy we can perform the following functionalities:

1. Mathematical and logical calculation on array.

2. Fourier transforms and routines for shape manipulation.

3. It has built in functions for linear algebra random number generation.

4. Used for scientific calculations.

5. It is faster than python list.

6. It is fast because it is associated with c programming.

NumPy is often called as an alternate for MatLab (a programming platform designed specifically for engineers and scientists for data analysis, developing algorithms, create models and application etc.)

Important nurseries and seed merchants of Uttar Pradesh

1. Azad Nurseries, Laxmi Gate, Saharanpur.
2. American Seed Store, Ayodhya.
3. Ashoka Seed Farm (Regd.) Darwaja Road, Ayodhya
4. Beiz Nursery, Azmatgarh Palace, Varanasi.
5. Ganesh Bagh Nursery, Kamachchha, Varanasi.
6. Ram Das & Co. Kamachchha, Varanasi.

Purpose- One of the important operation for horticulture crops is raising of seedlings (vegetable, fruit trees, shrubs and flowering annuals). Seedlings are either directly planted as in the case of some vegetables, flowering annuals, shrubs and trees or may used as root stock as in the case of mango, citrus etc. For healthy and good stand of seedlings proper preparation of nursery beds is essential. Since large number of seedlings are raised in a consideration. The protection of seedlings from pest, diseases, strong sun and wind is very important. These factor will vary if seedlings are raised under Low Tunnel Polyhouse.

1. Introduction

India’s horticulture production has exposed multiple rises in the historical two decades and the country is ranking second in the world next to China. The horticultural crops viz., fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, plantation crops and medicinal and aromatic plants have become a vital motorist for economy development in numerous states in India. Horticulture contributes 30.4 per cent to GDP of agriculture, which calls for the need of research and technical backstopping in this sector. Horticulture is a division which has the potential to create multiple springs of income, thereby boosting the economic growth of a country. Horticulture can be undertaken as market driven cultivation of vegetables, fruits and flowers, as ecotourism, as therapeutic medicinal plant harvesting and as a part of multiple farming to accompaniment the main source of income.

A nursery is a place, where seedling, saplings, trees, shrubs and other plant materials are raised and sold out for planting in gardens and orchards. The prerequisites of a successful and remunerative fruit production are the availability of true-type, healthy and good quality planting materials. Nursery is, therefore, a place where one can produce true to type plants by gaining technical skill, maintaining plants property and by careful planning. Like orchard establishment, establishment of a nursery is also at permanent venture and any mistake made initially can’t be rectified easily in the later stages. Therefore, for establishing a nursery, due care in selection of site, plants to be raised and transportation facilitation etc. must be given.

Nursery

Definition: It is a small area or place where seeds are sown for getting baby plant to transplant in the main field. These baby plants are known as seedlings.

Generally, growing rootstock in fruit plants and small seeded vegetables like tomato, brinjal, onion, cole–crops etc are needed to raising nursery and further transplanting.

There are two types of nursery;

• Temporary nursery: This nursery is raised by soil in open condition.
• Permanent nursery: This nursery is raised permanently walled and often provided with overhead covering against rain or frost.

A well-managed nursery is essential for producing healthy, uniform, vigorous, and field-ready planting material. This chapter explains nursery planning, site selection, propagation structures, growing media, containers, trays, irrigation, fertilization, sanitation, pest management, hardening, and transplant quality assessment. Protected raising techniques using shade nets, polyhouses, insect-proof structures, and controlled environments are discussed for improving germination and seedling survival. Particular attention is given to biosecurity, disease prevention, substrate sterilization, water quality, and environmental control. The chapter also introduces quality indicators such as root development, shoot growth, and physiological fitness. Efficient nursery management reduces establishment losses and provides the foundation for productive and profitable horticultural enterprises.

Successful onion cultivation begins with vigorous, disease-free seedlings and their timely establishment in the field. Seed quality, nursery-bed preparation, growing medium, nutrition, irrigation, weed control and protection against pests and diseases determine seedling performance. This chapter explains conventional and modern nursery-management practices, including raised beds, plug trays, protected structures, soilless media, fertigation and climate-controlled production. It also discusses seedling selection, hardening, transplanting age, spacing and field establishment. Mechanized, robotic and precision transplanting systems are examined as solutions to labour shortages and uneven planting. Climate-resilient nurseries, sensors and automation can further improve transplant survival, resource efficiency, uniformity, productivity and sustainability.

There has been an increasing demand for horticultural crops more particularly fruit .With this, the demand for good quality planting materials has gone up and hence the nursery business has developed rapidly in the recent years in our country. Plant propagation aims at the reproduction of selected individuals or group of individuals, in this the basic principal of life impose certain requirements which must be met with in practices for successful propagation. Plants material of various fruit crops have not only to be raised efficiently and scientifically, for which skilled knowledge in raising and management of nurseries is needed, but also these have to be transported quickly from nurseries to place where these plants materials will be grown.

Availability of quality planting material is one of the most importanant requirement for increasing the production and productivity of any fruit crops. It becomes one of the great challenges for horticulturists to get the disease free quality planting materials of fruit crops from an efficient and reliable nursery.

Besides edapho-climatic constraints in the arid region, availability of genuine planting materials at the doorsteps of the farmer’s is one of the major challenges that come in the way of horticultural development at commercial venture. Though, establishment of nursery is considered as remunerative farming enterprise if managed properly, in arid region it is still confined in the vicinity of big cities. It is also interesting to reveal that in the state like Rajasthan, most of the private nursery men are not producing planting materials in their nurseries except for the fruits like ber, lasoda and  kinnow instead they are purchasing planting materials from the other states in bulk and selling them on higher rate to the farmers of the state. The main reasons for poor development of nursery in the arid region are; unfavorable edapho-climatic conditions and poor knowledge about innovations made in recent past for nursery management. Keeping these facts in view, there is a need to develop a long chain of hitech-nurseries coupled with Human Resource Development for mass multiplication of quality planting materials for fulfilling the demand of end users. Production of quality planting material is directly link with productivity of fruit crops (Bose et al., 1998; Brison and Adriance, 2000).

7.1 Introduction
A nursery is a place where plants are cultivated and grown until they reach a usable size. Nursery management has evolved into a commercial venture, with different types of nurseries including retail, wholesale, and private nurseries. Retail nurseries sell planting materials to the general public, while wholesale nurseries supply other nurseries and commercial landscape gardeners. Private nurseries cater to the needs of specific institutions or organizations. Since many horticultural crops are propagated in nurseries, the production of quality planting materials is vital, especially for orchardists whose success largely depends on the quality of these materials, as most fruit crops are perennial. To be a successful grower, it is crucial to consider several factors, including soil and climatic conditions, location, water availability, financial support, labor availability, marketing facilities, demand, and transportation systems. However, the production of quality planting materials plays a pivotal role in determining the success of horticultural ventures, as planting materials form the foundation of the orchard (Chadha, 2001; Singh & Negi, 2010).
7.2 Demand for Seedlings and Seeds in India
The availability of quality planting materials is one of the most important factors in the development of a sound horticulture sector. In India, there is an immense demand for quality seedlings and seeds at lower costs, offering scope for large-scale planting. The demand for quality planting materials exists across the country, as these materials contribute to sustainable fruit production systems (Swaminathan, 2007).
7.3 Seedling Supply Chain
The primary suppliers of perennial tree seedlings are departmental/ government and industrial nurseries, which produce seedlings and vegetative propagules for their own needs, as well as for public distribution to meet raw material demands. Farmers primarily produce vegetable and ornamental seedlings, benefiting from the availability of improved seeds and the low input requirements. The price of ornamental seedlings depends on factors such as 

Nursery management is indeed a very important operation in successful growing of vegetables especially those, which are raised through seedlings in properly managed nursery beds. Raising nursery from seed provides an easy and convenient way to nourish tender young seedlings in a well-managed small and compact area. The nursery area can be conveniently protected from natural hazards, seed borne diseases and insect-pests and can be well managed economically. Some of the vegetable seeds are very costly, for which it is necessary to raise nursery in the most-optimum conditions. In areas where land holdings are small (in hills), nursery raising helps in making economical use of land for about one month and provides enough time to mature for previous crop, harvesting, threshing and land preparation for next crop. Most of the vegetable crops like cabbage, cauliflower, tomato, eggplant, sweet pepper, hot pepper, onion, celery, parsley, lettuce, etc. can successfully be raised through seed by growing them in the nursery and then transplanting in the field.

“A vegetable nursery is a place or an establishment for raising or handling young vegetable seedlings until they are ready for more permanent planting.”

Nursery can be maintained either for personal or commercial purpose, and each has its own advantages and disadvantages. Seedlings raised for own planting will be true to type, sound and healthy. On the other hand, seedlings purchased from outside may not be true to type, vigorous and healthy and may not arrive at destination in due course of time.

Nursery

Nursery is a place where seedling, saplings or any other planting materials are raised, propagated, multiplied and sold out for planting. The prerequisites of a successful and remunerative fruit production are the availability of true-to-type, healthy and good quality planting materials. Setting up of a fruit nursery is a long term venture and requires careful planning and expertise, because mistakes committed initially cannot be rectified easily and may adversely affect the return from the investment. Thus, one should pay due attention on every aspects when nursery is to be established.

In the nursery seedlings, saplings, cuttings and grafts are raised, propagated and multiplied under favorable condition for transplanting in the main field. In nursery, plants are nurtured by providing them with optimum growing condition to ensure germination.

Benefits of Raising Seedlings in Nursery

1. Tender seedlings are looked after very conveniently.

2. Seedlings canbe protected very easliy from pests and diseases.

3. Land can be properly utilised (duration in the main field is reduced).

4. Costly and small size seeds can be raised effeciently without any wastage.

5. Uniformity in the crop can be be maintained by selecting healthy, uniform and vigorous seedlings from the nursery.

Introduction

Nursery is a place where seedlings, cuttings and grafts are raised with care before transplanting.

Advantage of Raising Seedlings in Nursery

1. It is very convenient to look after the tender seedlings
2. It is easy to protect the seedlings from pests and diseases
3. Economy of land usage (duration in the main field is reduced)
4. Valuable and very small seeds can be raised effectively without any wastage
5. Uniform crop stand in the main field can be maintained by selecting healthy, uniform and vigorous seedlings in the nursery itself.