eChapters

Proteins are composed of amino acids and are large molecules that play a crucial role in various biological processes. They are considered the fundamental building blocks of life due to their abundance in the body, constituting approximately 60% of the dry weight of cells. These complex biomolecules are intricately folded and twisted strands of amino acids, actively participating in vital life processes, including metabolism, locomotion, immune response intercellular signaling, and molecular identification. As macronutrients proteins are present in all living organisms and directly contribute to numerous metabolic pathways. It is important to note that proteins are unique to each organism, exhibit species specificity, and vary within different organs of the same organism. With 22 different amino acids, the properties of a protein molecule are determined by the specific arrangement of these amino acids. While plants can synthesize all the necessary amino acids for protein production, animals rely on external sources for certain amino acids. Proteins consist of amino acids connected through peptide bonds, formed by the linkage between the amino (NH2 ) group of one amino acid and the carboxyl (COOH) group of another amino acid.

4.1 Phases of technology transfer
To translate laboratory research into market ready product, it is important to understand steps or phases involved in this technology transfer process. The process typically includes six main phases, each with a different role (figure 9).
4.1.1 Research
Technology transfer begins with research, the critical stage of exploring and discovering novel knowledge, technologies, or innovations that may have potential commercial applications. The research phase can occur in academic institutions, research organizations, or private sector companies, often funded by public or private sources. Thorough research ensures that the technologies being transitioned are scientifically and technically robust, thereby increasing their potential for market success. Therefore, the research phase involves creating and evaluating new ideas, confirming their feasibility, and identifying IP prospects, all of which are key components of TT success.
4.1.2 Innovation disclosure
Innovation disclosure is the first formal step where the innovation is reported to the appropriate TTO or IP management team. This process ensures that the institution or organization recognizes the innovation and evaluates its potential for protection and commercialization. It includes following information:

1. INTRODUCTION

Plant diseases are major constraints to plant growth and development (from seed to maturity) resulting in crop losses. Plants are exposed to attack, by a wide variety of microbes like bacteria, virus, fungi, phytoplasma and as an abnormality they cause disease. To counter these threats, plants have evolved a series of defense systems in response to the pathogen challenge inhibiting natural resistance. Thus disease is an exception rather than rule. However on failure of the inbuilt resistance mechanism, outbreak of disease has led to the widespread use of chemicals that have deleterious environmental and human health consequences. To enable the development of more effective and durable resistance against pathogens, a detailed analysis is necessary to identify the genes and mechanisms involved in plant defense/resistance.

Recombinant DNA and gene transformation technologies have potential to augment traditional breeding efforts (limited by genetic variability) by circumventing taxonomic limitations to gene pool for pathogen resistance. Further manipulation of defense genes in transgenic plants provide novel approaches for engineering pathogen resistance. It becomes important to understand the different components of plant defense to exploit host plants for resistance Thus the review is focused on plant genes and proteins that are known to play a major role in plant resistant against pathogens.

High-yielding crop varieties and hybrids with tolerance to pests /diseases and to various farming constraints such as soil and water salinity, soil acidity, drought, flood and such other factors have been developed.

Eight cardamom hybrids, NKE 12 × MB 5 (1,499 kg/ha), MB 5 × NKE 19 (1,461 kg/ha), GG × NKE 12 (1,350 kg/ha), RR 1 × CCS 1 (1,245 kg/ha), CCS 1 × RR 1 (1,022 kg/ha), ASH (1,930 kg/ha), NKE 12 × GG (1,746 kg/ha), GG × NKE 19 (1,635 kg/ha), were identified for high yield and resistance to mosaic and rhizome rot diseases. Two unique mutants, AFg-3 and AFg-4, for powdery mildew resistance were isolated in fenugreek. In ajwain, AA 93 has been developed which flowers 40 days earlier compared to other varieties. Thirty- two elite saffron clones were selected and evaluated for fresh and dry weight of pistil, stiga and style length, and weight. CITH 125 (4.5 kg/ha), CITH 123 (4.3 kg/ha), CITH 124 (4.3 kg/ha), CITH 122 (4.0 kg/ha), CITH 12 (4.5 kg/ha), CITH 121 (3.9 kg/ha), CITH 107 (3.8 kg/ha), CITH 120 (3.8 kg/ha) and CITH 104 (3.7 kg/ha), having higher saffron yield were identified.

Introduction

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L. ) popularly known as Gram, Bengal gram, Egyptian pea, Chana, or Kabuli chana, Garbanzo bean is one of the first grain legumes to be domesticated by humans in old world (Van der Maesen, 1972). The genus Cicer belongs to the sub-family Papilionaceae of the family Leguminoceae (Bentham and Hooker, 1970) now popularly known as ‘Fabaceae’ and have chromosome number 2n = 2x = 16. The origin of the crop is considered to be Western Asia from where it has been transferred in India and other parts of the world (Rathore and Sharma, 2003). Importance of pulses is relatively more in our country as its contribution in nutrient supply is far more in Indian diet than that in Asia and world as a whole (Ali,2002).

What is Audio

Audio refers to sound that is within the range of human hearing. This encompasses everything from the spoken word and music to ambient sounds and electronic signals. In technical terms, audio often refers to the representation of these sounds in a form that can be recorded, transmitted, and reproduced, typically using electronic devices.

History and Evolution of Audio Communication and Aids

Ancient to Early Modern Period

1. Early Communication

• Oral Tradition: In ancient times, communication was predominantly oral. Stories, knowledge, and news were passed down verbally.

• Musical Instruments: Early instruments like drums, flutes, and stringed instruments were used for communication, rituals, and entertainment.

2. Writing and Instruments

• Written Language: The invention of writing allowed for more permanent records of communication but was separate from audio.

• Bell Towers and Horns: In medieval times, bells and horns were used for signaling and communication over distances.

Abstract
The growing demand for fish products, recognized for their nutritional composition and contribution to a healthy diet, has led to a significant increase in seafood processing waste, including shells, bones, skins, and other by-products. This chapter explores the potential of utilizing these seafood by-products to develop edible films and coatings, aligning with circular bio economy principles of, resource efficiency, sustainability and waste reduction. Edible films and coatings derived from seafood waste, such as chitosan, proteins, gelatin etc. offer various advantages, which include extention of the shelf life of products, preserving sensory qualities (aroma, taste, and appearance), and reducing the need for synthetic packaging materials. These biodegradable films also demonstrate antimicrobial, antioxidant, and mould-inhibiting properties, which contribute to improving food quality and safety. However, despite the benefits, challenges remain in terms of the physical properties of these films, including water resistance, mechanical strength, and consumer acceptance. The commercial application of these biopolymer-based materials is still limited by these issues, as well as by the complexities involved in scaling up production processes. To optimise the qualities of edible films and coatings made from seafood waste, more research is essential, particularly through the development of composite materials and innovative gelling systems. With ongoing advancements in biopolymer technology and processing techniques, edible films from seafood waste hold great promise as a sustainable, eco-friendly alternative to traditional plastic packaging, contributing to the circular bio economy and reducing environmental pollution.
Keywords: Biodegradable, Edible coatings, Edible films, Seafood Processing waste

Introduction
Information Technology (IT) has become a cornerstone of modern society, driving innovations across industries and redefining operational efficiencies. However, energy consumption has increased exponentially as the IT sector expands, making energy efficiency a critical focus area. The interplay between IT and energy efficiency is multifaceted, encompassing hardware optimization, sustainable software development, advanced cooling technologies, and integrating renewable energy sources. This relationship is pivotal in mitigating the environmental impact of IT while sustaining its growth trajectory.

Introduction

In recent past, ‘entrepreneurship’ has been a buzz word in Indian livestock business sector. It literally means ‘turning innovations into incomes’. As a whole, livestock is a fast growing sector in Indian agricultural economy, growing at an annual rate of approximately 4.5%. This has opened avenues for commercialization of more and more technologies involving livestock health and production. According to a recent estimate by FAO (2009), meat sector in India is also growing at a rate of 4.5% per annum over last decade and pigs, contributing about 8.2% of country’s total meat production, have a tremendous role to play in the face of globalization, strict WTO regulations and emerging IPR issues. The ‘knowledge economy’ is coming to play an important role in such situation, meaning, much wider application of livestock technologies in livestock business.

Shrubs are defined as woody, semi woody or herbaceous perennial plants, branches arises from the base of the plants and grow up to height of about 0.5 to 4.0 meters. These plants are commonly erect and bushy. Most of the shrubs are very hardy, require little attention and grow in all types of soils. Although some plants flower almost throughout the year, in most cases it is seasonal and selection can be made in such a way that some plants in the shrubbery will be in bloom in different seasion of the year. Shrub flowers regularly every year and produce flowers of almost all the important colors white, light yellow, golden pink, scarlet, crimson, violet, blue, and some are sweet scented.

In gardens, shrubs are usually planted in three ways:

(1) In the form of shrubbery, on the long strip of land where taller shrubs are grown at the back with medium height in middle and dwarf once at the fronts. Colors of flowers and time of flowering are also considered so that shrubbery remains colorful throughout year with bloom and foliage.

(2) In small garden or to break monotony of open space shrubs are often grown in groups and in this case few plants of the same variety or of different species are selected.

(3) Shrubs are also grown as a specimen plant or in only one row along the border of the garden or a wall.

Shrubs are used in gardens for decorative purposes as these shrubs are found more in ornamental and provide a variety of interests. They are evergreen and best against noise and dust. Any perennial woody, perpetual and thick plant of relatively low height that branches into a few stems or trunks arising from the ground base is known as shrub. They are littler than a tree but taller than herbaceous plants. They are also called as bushes when they are much-branched and dense. They grow upwards up to 0.5-4.0meter and may be flowering and ornamental. Shrubs play important role in permanent landscaping i.e. formal decoration which contributes pattern, colour, fragrance and utility. They may be either evergreen or deciduous in nature. Some shrubs have attractive foliage, flowers and attractive berries. Shrubs are planted as borders on the sides of paths and at the corners of lawn in a curving line. Shrubs are used for back ground, boundary wall, screen, shade, wind breaks and foundation planting. Hence, knowledge on the form, growth habit and habitat is essential to select the shrubs for planting. Shrubs are important part of landscaping or landscape designing is an art of modifying the overall appearance of a given piece of land using different ornamental plants. It is an artificial process. A garden or national and international playgrounds are the example of artificially landscaped area. Ornamental plants are a group of different flowering, foliage and stylish plants. These plants are used for the beautification of selected part of a site or other places.

Atomic weight of an element is defined as the relative average weight of its atom as compared to the weight of an atom of C12 (stable isotope) taken as 12 on the a.m.u. (atomic mass unit) scale.

Introduction
DNA fingerprinting envisages a very significant molecular methodology employed for identification and characterization of wheat varieties and germplasm. It is of utmost importance in varietal authentication, rights protection of breeders, and analysis of genetic diversity. Currently employed molecular markers like SSRs, SNPs, and DArT are applied extensively for wheat fingerprinting. Such markers precisely differentiate closely related varieties and aid in breeding programs (Babu et al., 2020; Kiss et al., 2021).
The current standing of wheat DNA fingerprinting shows a trend toward high-throughput genotyping and genomic selection strategies to accelerate crop improvement. Future prospects would entail the integration of advanced sequencing technologies such as Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) and machine learning for genetic analysis. These technologies will ease wheat breeding and dramatically contribute to food security and climate-resilient agriculture. Expanding the global DNA fingerprinting database would further enhance global wheat germplasm conservation and utilization (Sandhu et al., 2021; Ahmadi et al., 2020). Wheat (Triticum spp.) is one of the major staple crops of the world, supporting the sustenance of over one-third of the total world population. It is the main source of carbohydrates, proteins, fibers, and other important micronutrients, making it very important for human nutrition. Wheat is cultivated mainly in all types of agro-climatic zones, with major producers being China, India, Russia, United States, and the European Union.
Wheat is highly valuable not only in terms of food security, but also economically with millions of farmers involved in its production and trading worldwide. Wheat is an important raw material for many food products, such as bread, pasta, and baked goods. Wheat production faces challenges from climate change, pests, and emerging pathogens. Therefore, continuous research on wheat, genetic improvement for desirable traits, and sustainable agricultural practices are needed to enhance yield, resilience, and in turn global food security. Genetic diversity in wheat is pertinent for fulfilling food security at the global level and for the success of breeding programs, apart from giving diverse traits for resistance against pests, diseases, and environmental stresses like droughts

Climbers are the group of ornamental plants which possess weak stem and climb up the support with the help of certain modified organs to reach the top and receive sunlight and air. Climbers enhance the beauty of any garden provided they are selected carefully depending upon the availability of space and the orientation of the building. The growth habit, mass effect of foliage and diverse flower colour give charming appearance to the climbers for their characteristics.

Ornamental climbers are commonly used to train on suitable supports such as arches, pergola, trellis, along the walls and trees. These are most suited in congested regions prone to scarcity of space especially in urban environment.

Abstract
India holds a dominant position in the global production and export of castor, accounting for nearly 88% of global and leading the international the international castor oil trade. This chapter investigates the status of castor production and trade dynamics, highlighting India’s evolving role in commercial agriculture and export-oriented strategies. Castor, a non-edible oilseed with significant industrial applications, is primarily cultivated in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Andhra Pradesh. The study explores trends in area, production and yield across states and districts, alongside export trends over a 15 year period (2006-06 to 2019- 20). Results show positive growth in export quantity, value and unit price, despite fluctuations, supported by favourable policies and quality improvements. Using the Markov chain model, the direction of trade analysis reveals China as the most stable and dominant importer, followed by Netherlands and France. The USA also shows emerging potential. Instability indices indicate relatively low volatility in trade metrics. The finding suggest that while India maintains a strong global presence, strategic efforts are needed to sustain existing markets and explore new opportunities, especially in emerging economies offering better prices and reliability.
Keywords: Castor Oil Exports, High-Value Commercial Crops, Direction of Trade, Global and Castor Trade Dynamics

Taxonomy, also known as systematics, is the study of classifying organisms into logically related groups. Historically, taxonomy was performed by examining physical characteristics of organisms and classifying species based on the most commonly held traits. Unfortunately, this method of classifying plants and animals assumes that because they share physical characteristics, they must have shared ancestors. Markers are used over the years for classification of plants. Markers are any trait(s) of an organism that can be identified with confidence and relative ease, and can be followed in a mapping population. They can be defined as heritable entities associated with the economically important trait under the control of polygenes. Molecular markers are any kind of molecule indicating existence of a chemical or a physical process. Molecular markers include biochemical constituents (e.g. secondary metabolites in plants) and macromolecules (e.g. proteins and deoxyribo-nucleic acid). These macromolecules show easily detectable differences among different strains of a species or among different species.
The prerequisite for the improvement of any plant species are germplasm collection and its characterization to find out the diversity among the accessions. Characterization can be done by several ways which include morphological, enzymatic and genetical methods. The best way to assess the diversity is based on DNA markers which allow differentiation among genotypes without any environmental influences. These markers have a great potential to identify genetic diversity within and among accessions which help in successful implementation of pre-breeding approaches. Molecular
markers are considered the best tools for determining genetic relationships diversity as they are unlimited in number, show high polymorphism, provides more reliable information, detect more variation than morphological and biochemical markers; and are stage independent, not affected by environment and simply inherited. Molecular markers are ‘tags’ that can be used to identify specific genes and locate them in relation to other genes. They help in ensuing a desired beneficial trait to be maintained or an undesirable trait to be eliminated.

Abstract

Crop diversity play important role of sustainable development. A study on crop diversity in Andhra Pradesh was conducted during 2010-2011. In Andhra Pradesh, cultivated crop plant species resulted in augmentation of 140 species belonging to 132 genera and 46 families. The maximum species strength was observed in the Rayalaseema region (127 species belonging to 120 genera and 43 families), followed by Telangana region (125 species belonging to 114 genera and 43 families) and parts of Coastal Andhra region (118 species belonging to 103 genera and 46 families). Species richness was predominant in cultivated crops like vegetable crops (31 species belonging 25 genera and 12 families), Fruit crops (25 species belonging 18 genera and 14 families), commercial crops (23 species belonging 23 genera and 15 families) and Leafy vegetables (12 species belonging 12 genera and 8 families). The maximum species richness in families was found in Fabaceae (16 genera and 19 species), followed by Poaceae (14 genera and 16 species), Cucurbitaceae (11 genera and 14 species), Asteraceae (7 genera and 7 species) and Apiaceae (5 genera and 5 species). The present and the past similar studies observed that many more native species remain in agriculture than previously thought, under the right conditions. There is a need to establish mechanisms of control on introduction of exotic species in natural habitats. We also need to strengthen the legislation on the use of biodiversity and to establish a research programme of the economic potential of local flora and fauna as an alternative to introduction of exotic species to safeguard our traditional crop diversity.

Pansy belongs to the family Violaceae, genus Viola and species tricolor. Pansy also known as butterfly flower, cat face. Pansies are annuals or short-lived perennials, grow 15-30 cm tall and have heart-shaped leaves at the base and oblong leaves growing from the stems. The pansy is quite durable and a “flower for all seasons”. The fragrant and edible blooms are desirable in gardens. Pansy popularity increases possible due to its ease of growing. Whether grown from seed or bedding plants, pansies are relatively disease and pest free blooming prolifically for the gardener’s enjoyment.

The increasing use of antibiotics in livestock and poultr y led to development of antibiotic resistant micro organisms and antibiotic residues in livestock products besides other side effects. These caused alarm bells ringing all over the world and by the end of June, 1999 majority of antibiotics as growth promoters in monogastric diets had been banned within the EU. The ban on use of antibiotic at sub therapeutic level in Europe and the potential for a ban in the United States have made scientists to seriously think of alternatives to antibiotics. In fact, the use of probiotics for farm animals was already stimulated by the findings of the Schwann Committee in 1969 which recommended that antibiotics in animal feeds should be restricted. However, the concept of probiotics gained momentum in later part of the last century. In recent years, with the public disapproval of using antibiotics in livestock and poultry production due to their residual effects in their products, there has been a greater emphasis on the use of probiotics in poultry.

Diagrams and graphs are the effective and attractive ways of presenting data. Widely used diagrams for data presentation are pi chart and bar diagrams. Bar diagrams are also of various types; (i) Simple bar diagram (ii) Component or sub-divided bar diagram (iii) Multiple bar diagram (iv) Percentage bar diagram. The widely used graphical presentation are histograms, frequency polygon and frequency curve.

There are numerous libraries to create charts and graphs in R programming language.

Pie-chart- A pie-chart is a representation of values of variable as sectors of a circle with different colours/shadings. The colours/shadings used for different sectors are indexed at the side of the graph. pie() function is used to create pie chrt in R.

Let us create an exel file names as ‘exp_sports’ which contains the expenditure made (in Rs.) under various sports in a sports club. The name of the sports are cricket, hockey, tennis and football. The names of sports are placed under the column head ‘sports’. The corresponding expenditure (in Rs.) are 7200, 3600, 1800, 1800 and they are placed under the column head ‘expenditure’.

The basic syntax for creating a pie-chart using the R is.

Knowledge on fish reproductive biology is extremely important to understand various issues relating to reproduction and fishery management. Reproductive success in aquaculture systems depends to a greater extent on our knowledge about sexual differentiation, gonad structure, gametogenesis, spawning, larval metamorphosis, etc for successful captive breeding of a fish species. This chapter therefore, contains information on secondary sexual characters, sex-ratio, gonad structure, gonadal maturity, fecundity and embryonic development of striped murrel.

2.1 Secondary Sexual Characters

The sexes are separate in striped murrel however differentiation of sex is not easy when fish is immature. The differentiations in sexes become distinct with advancement of maturity during spawning season. On attaining full maturity, a good fecund mature female could be easily distinguished with having bulged belly originating nearing the site of pectoral fins and extends near to the vent.