eChapters

1. Jefferies SR. 2014. Bioactive and biomimetic restorative materials: a comprehensive review. Part I. J Esthet Restor Dent. 26(1):14-26.

2. Sharma M, Murray PE, Sharma D, Parmar K, Gupta S, Goyal P. 2013. Modern approaches to use bioactive materials and molecules in medical and dental treatments. Int J Curr.Microbiol. App. Sci., 2(11):429-39.

3. Laskin Daniel M: Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery vol 1

4. Kay C. Dee, David A. Puleo, Bizios R. 2002. An Introduction to Tissue Biomaterial Interactions.

5. Peltola MJ, Vallittu PK, Vuorinen V, Aho AA, Puntala A, Aitasalo KM. 2012. Novel composite implant in craniofacial bone reconstruction. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 269(2):623-8

6. Kao ST, Scott DD. 2007. A review of bone substitutes. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 19(4):513-21, vi.

7. Nasr HF, Aichelmann-Reidy ME, Yukna RA. 1999. Bone and bone substitutes. Periodontol 2000. 19:74-86.

INTRODUCTION

During the last three decades, libraries have shown a considerable degree of momentum in the collection building and readership programme activities involving considerable expenditure of funds. This rapid development of libraries as a consequence, generated several evaluative studies on the usefulness of libraries to society. Until recently evaluations were subjective, based purely on opinions expressed by an individual or group. However, developments in the field of mathematics, statistics, operations research, management science, economics and system analysis have led to a minimization of this subjectivity. In particular, the systems analysis approach has led to the identification and application of appropriate quantitative measuring techniques for evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of the information services offered by the librarians. This has generated a new field in library and information science viz; ‘Bibliometrics’.

Bibliometric analysis which has now become a well established part of information research and quantitative approach to the description of documents and examination of services is gaining ground both in research and practice. Librarians are facing the problems arising out of ever increasing cost of different types of reading materials and decreasing budgets of libraries.

Bibliometric studies are helpful in solving the problems of librarians. Pritichard¹ defines Bibliometrics as “application of mathematical and statistical methods to books and other media of communication”.

1. Bibliometric

Bibliometrics is the application of quantitative techniques to analyze the volume, the movement, the frequency and the characteristics, etc of published documents and the related activities. Alan Pritchard was first to use the word “Bibliometrics” in an article “Statistical Bibliography or Bibliometrics” published in the 1969 issue of the “Journal of Documentation”. He defines Bibliometrics as “the application of mathematical and statistical methods to books and other media of communication.” In a later article, Pritchard explained Bibliometrics as the “metrology of the information transfer process and its purpose is analysis and control of the process”. Bibliometrics is a set of methods used to study or measure texts and information (Wikipedia, 2011).

The increasing use of genomics, phenotyping, remote sensing, sensors and digital agricultural technologies has generated large and complex datasets in plant science. This chapter examines the role of big data analytics in managing and interpreting these datasets for agricultural research and decision-making. It discusses applications of big data in plant science and the technological infrastructure required for data storage, processing and analysis. Cloud computing, next-generation sequencing and high-performance computing are highlighted as important technologies supporting large-scale biological and agricultural data analysis. The chapter also considers the benefits and challenges of big data, including computational requirements, data management, integration and interpretation, before outlining future opportunities for data-driven plant science.

Electronic health records contain extensive clinical, demographic, diagnostic and treatment information that can support medical research and decision-making. This chapter examines the characteristics of healthcare big data and the challenges associated with EHR storage, integration, quality and analysis. It presents an analytics pipeline covering data ingestion, secure storage, preprocessing, integration, pattern discovery, visualization and clinical decision support. Machine learning and deep learning methods are discussed in relation to clinical phenotyping, risk stratification, predictive epidemiology and adverse-outcome prediction. The chapter also addresses data privacy, governance, regulatory compliance, explainability, scalability and bias, highlighting the need for secure and interoperable EHR-mining systems that generate clinically useful knowledge.

Big Data refers to extremely large, very fast, highly diverse, and complex data that cannot be managed with conventional data management systems, tools or processes. In the perfect world, Big Data may include all kind of data, which can deliver the right information, to right person, in the right quantity, at the right time, to help in making the right decisions.

Introduction

Indian agriculture, including fisheries, is highly monsoon dependent and effect of climate change is immense on its large tracts of rainfed farms. The effects of climate change could be thwarted through better adaptation techniques using all information available with various agencies concerned with agriculture and using advanced analytical tools. Presently, in the country, there is a gap in the capability in capturing, processing and analyzing huge source of information generated in Indian agriculture. This task can be accomplished using Big Data Platform which works in cluster mode and provides the capability of handling huge volume of data, capturing streaming data or real time data and also can accommodate unstructured data. As per FAO, 70 percent in increase in food production in another 30 years is required to overcome the increasing global food demand. It may not be possible to achieve that target due to variety of problems such as reduction in land for cultivation, climate change, and various other factors, such as increasing the fish production etc. Improvement in crop genetics, application of fertilizer in higher dosages, irrigation facilities, etc. may not be possible in future. We need to create a big data platform involving important parameters on crop production viz., soil, soil temperature, water requirements, and relative humidity, pests and diseases, and micro and macro nutrients in temporal and spatial. Now, since available data is properly utilized for making valid analytics by the farming community due to certain issues. Even the data created is incompatible, data available from various sources is also not compatible among themselves due to which decision making is also a big challenge. Due to the incompatibility of agricultural data from different sources, farmers do not have the accessibility to vast pool of available information for making effective, efficient and timely decisions.

Big Data in Agriculture (including fisheries)

Big data, an emerging data driven system helps in precision agriculture based on data collected. This helps farmers in making efficient decisions on sowing, planting, fertilizing and various other farm operations including

harvesting crops at the appropriate time. Of late, sensors are placed in the fields to collect data on related parameters viz., soil temperature and moisture relative humidity, wind speed, weather, etc. which help in crop growth. Images obtained using satellites are helpful in monitoring the crop growth during crop period. Agro-produce includes not only yields obtained from crops but also include produce from horticulture, livestock, fisheries, and other systems also. Agriculture is dependent on various parameters such as climate, seed, soil cultivation practices, agronomic practices, irrigation requirement, fertilizers pesticides, weeds, harvesting, post harvesting techniques, etc. Data collected on all these parameters would help in estimation of yield and other relevant parameters. Governments, Universities, Research departments, Agro-business and Agri-input companies generate, maintain and use voluminous data related to various farm management practices and other related issues say insurance marketing, supply chain, packaging, distribution, etc. This voluminous and wide variety of data poses several challenges for making effective decisions. Information on various fish related parameters can be collected from the stakeholders and a big data platform can be developed for effective decision making.

Represented by about 120 genera and over 800 species. Bignoniaceae are distributed mainly in tropical and sub-tropical, and a few in temperate regions. About 15 genera and 40 species are found in India. Some of the larger genera along with their approximate number of worldover reported species are Tabebuia (100), Arraabidaea (70), Jacaranda (50), Anemopaegma (30), Tecoma (16), Catalpa (11) and Crescentia (5).
Selected Indian Genera
Jacaranda, Kigelia, Millingtonia, Tecoma, Heterophragma, Oroxylum and Dolichandrone. Economic Importance
1. Ornamental plants of the family include handsome trees (Catalpa bignonioides, Haplophragma adenophyllum, Jacaranda mimosaefolia, (Fig. 26.1), Kigelia pinnata, Millingtonia hortensis, Spathodea campanulata and Tabebuia spectabilis), shrubs (Bignonia unguis-cati), beautiful tendril-climbers (Adenocalymna alliaceum, Bignonia venusta syn. Pyrostegia venusta), aerial rootlet climbers (Campis grandiflora and C. radicans) and herbaceous genus Incarvillea.

Pulses are considered to be the most effective means of overcoming protein and micronutrient malnutrition since they are excellent sources of dietary protein (19-25%), besides being rich in important minerals and vitamins (Ali and Kumar, 2004). In Bihar, people are mostly vegetarian in dietary habits and depend largely on pulses as the source of dietary protein. But production of pulses has not kept pace with the population growth and per capita availability of pulses has thus, declined from 61 g/day in 1950-51 to less than 28.0 g/day in 2001 as against 70 g/day the standards prescribed by ICMR. Moreover, in Bihar the contribution of cereals in total protein consumption is more than 73.0% which is not a healthy trend as cereal proteins lack many essential amino acids that are present in the pulses from which only 10.6% of total protein intake come in the diet of rural population. This alarming situation, perhaps, has arisen largely due to the quest for food security rather than nutritional security, being the prime national agenda. According to an estimate, more than 70% of gross cropped area in the state is occupied by paddy and wheat whereas, only 9.0% of it is shared by the pulses.

Composting is organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as fertilizer and soil conditioner. It is a natural process of decomposition and recycling of organic material into humus rich soil amendment. At the simplest level, the process of composting requires making a heap of organic material sprinkled with water which break down to humus after a period of weeks or months. However, modern bio composting is a multi-step, closely monitored process with measured inputs of water, air and carbon and nitrogen rich ( in proper C:N ratio ) materials.
The term composting is used and understand world wide with different
meanings. ( I remember a funny incidence in China when during my talk I mentioned that the process of bio composting does not appear to be understood by more than 80% people. Objecting to this, the President of the academy got up and said “80% is a wrong figure! More than 95% people do not understand it !!”). For many people, composting is used to refer to several types of biological process often calling it “anaerobic digestion”. The microbes used and the process involved are quite different between composting and anaerobic digestion.
Ingredients for Bio Composting
Bio Composting organisms require four important ingredient to function well:

Composting is organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as fertilizer and soil conditioner. It is a natural process of decomposition and recycling of organic material into humus rich soil amendment.

At the simplest level, the process of composting requires making a heap of organic material sprinkled with water which break down to humus after a period of weeks or months. However, modern bio composting is a multi-step, closely monitored process with measured inputs of water, air and carbon and nitrogen rich (in proper C:N ratio) materials.

Bio Control Agents explains how natural enemies can suppress agricultural pests and diseases through predators, parasitoids, and pathogens. It traces the historical development of biological control from traditional practices to major scientific successes and institutional development in India. The chapter describes introduction, augmentation, and conservation strategies, followed by detailed accounts of predators, parasitoids, and pathogenic microorganisms. Important bioagents, their characteristics, mechanisms, field applications, and mass-production methods are discussed, including Trichogramma, Chrysoperla, Cryptolaemus, Beauveria, Metarhizium, Trichoderma, Bacillus, and viral agents. The chapter provides a practical foundation for integrating biological control into environmentally responsible crop protection programs. across diverse farming environments and practical field implementation practically.

To many Bio Fertilizer is still an unclear term. Often they are identified as urban and rural organic wastes, plant extracts, organic components etc. However, Bio Fertilizer is mostly commonly referred to the use of soil micro organisms to increase the uptake and availability of plant nutrients.

Bio Fertilizer have gained a good deal of momentum and the industry after a slow start is now gaining more and more importance globally. The major reasons for this are that they:

To many Bio Fertilizer is still an unclear term. Often they are identified as urban and rural organic wastes, plant extracts, organic components etc. However, Bio Fertilizer is mostly commonly referred to the use of soil micro organisms to increase the uptake and availability of plant nutrients. Bio Fertilizer have gained a good deal of momentum and the industry after a slow start is now gaining more and more importance globally. The major reasons for this are that they:
1. Improves the soil structure.
2. Add nutrients to the soil / make the nutrients available to the crop
3. Secret certain growth promoting substances
4. Under certain conditions exhibit antifungal activities and there by protect the plants from pathogenic fungus
5. Enhances seed germination
6. Increase the soil fertility
7. Increase the agricultural productivity
8. The nitrogen fixed or phosphate solubilized will be beneficial to the
subsequent crops also.
The major, popularly used and commercially produced Bio Fertilizers are Nitrogen fixing bacterial fertilizers (Azotobacter Culture, Azospirillum Culture, Rhizobium Culture) and Phosphate solubilizing bacterial fertilizers (Pseudomonas Culture). However, currently their applications for other useful elements like Potash, Sulphur, Zincetc are also increasing.

All organisms require the six elements CHNOPS in sizable quantities, and that these minerals may occur in different forms. Depending on whether the local environment is aerobic or anaerobic, the exact chemical form of any of these elements may change quickly and drastically. Example: : If the soil becomes waterlogged and anaerobic, sulfate will be converted into hydrogen sulfide and nitrate into nitrogen gas or ammonia (via anaerobic respiration). As the water recedes and the soil becomes aerobic again, the ammonia is oxidized back to nitrate in stages. All of this (and many other processes) occur largely because of the activities of soil microbes. Without these microbes, life as we know it would not occur because necessary elements would remain tied up in unusable chemical forms and gradually be removed by sedimentation. To maintain the level of these components it is essential that they undergo a regular process of recycling. Different microorganisms bring about this process of recycling through various transformations.

Carbon Cycle

The most important element in the biological realm and substance that serve as the cornerstone of the cell structure is carbon. It constituents about 40-50% of all living organisms, yet the ultimate source is the CO₂ that exists in a perennially short supply, only 0.03% of the earth’s atmosphere, which undergoes a cyclic change from an oxidized to reduced state. The concentration of carbon in living matter (18%) is almost 100 times greater than its concentration in the earth (0.19%). Hence, living things extract carbon from their non-living environment. For life to continue, this carbon must be recycled. Carbon exists in the nonliving environment as carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere and dissolved in water (forming HCO₃") carbonate rocks (limestone and coral = CaCO₃) deposits of coal, petroleum, and natural gas derived from once-living things dead organic matter, e.g., humus in the soil. Carbon enters the biotic world through the action of autotrophs: primarily photoautotrophs, like plants and algae, that use the energy of light to convert carbon dioxide to organic matter through photosynthesis and to a small extent, chemoautotrophs - bacteria and Archaeans that do the same but use the energy derived from the oxidation of molecules in their substrate.

Reducing the input costs in farming, especially agrochemicals and improving the yields of farm products in environmentally sustainable way, is one of the most important challenges. World over, the understanding of alternative eco-friendly inputs and intelligent integration of such products with the farming practices are the areas which need to be emphasized, understood and demonstrated. Our experience of working with farmers in different regions has convinced us that they all are looking for alternative, eco-friendly and cost effective inputs and the only way to convince them is practical demonstrations. Eco safe farming is a global challenge and needs combined efforts of NGOs and farmers bodies, private and public sector industries and scientists in the institutions and universities. There are many challenges and many success stories and some typical once are listed here.
1. POTATO IN BIHAR
Bihar Government planned a major program in 2011 – 12 for taking up large scale organic farming. A group of experts was invited to discuss and help this initiative. After a systematic planning and joint participation of the state Government, public and private sectors a package of bio inputs was prepared. The results with respect to productivity increase were extremely encouraging as reproduced from a case study paper in BOX – 1

Reducing the input costs in farming, especially agrochemicals and improving the yields of farm products in environmentally sustainable way, is one of the most important challenges. World over, the understanding of alternative eco-friendly inputs and intelligent integration of such products with the farming practices are the areas which need to be emphasized, understood and demonstrated. Our experience of working with farmers in different regions has convinced us that they all are looking for alternative, eco-friendly and cost effective inputs and the only way to convince them is practical demonstrations. 
Eco safe farming is a global challenge and needs combined efforts of NGO_s and farmers bodies, private and public sector industries and scientists in the institutions and universities. There are many challenges and many success stories and some typical once are listed here.

At an Agri Summit, I had an in-enviable task to chair a session on “Sustainable Future”, with two well-known but extremely opposite personalities. On my left was a globally well-known environment activist talking about all the evils of chemical fertilizers and chemical pesticides. On my right was the President of Pesticide Association with equally strong views about how the chemical pesticides have greatly helped in feeding the hungry world. My task was further made difficult by a large lobby of green activists in the audience and also a number of seasoned industrialists with opposite views. Such a scenario is becoming increasingly common.
In January 2009, the European Council Directive 91-414 was passed banning a total of more than 40% chemical pesticides (David Frabotta, FCI – March, 2009). Earlier in 1993, there were 740 active ingredients available in European markets. By August 2008, however, 394 of these were no longer allowed and 113 more were still under review. It was predicted that in next 5 – 10 years, 85% of these could disappear from European markets. The Swedish chemical agency shortlisted nearly 21 chemical under criteria of ‘Endocrine’ ( The Endocrine criteria are defined as any substances that trigger class – 3 carcinogenic effect and class - 3 reproductive effect). These are new herbicides like :loxynil, Gluctosinate, etc. The two major class of fungicides are described as Triazoles and Dithiocarbonate. Triazoles are major weapon against septoria – a major fungal diseases in cereals.
BEYOND GREEN REVOLUTION
In spite of increase in the use of agrochemicals, the agricultural production and productivity has remained stagnant beyond 1990 due to poor soil conditions

At an Agri Summit, I had a very difficult task to chair a session on “Sustainable Future”, with two well-known but extremely opposite personalities. On my left was a globally well-known environment activist talking about all the evils of chemical fertilizers and chemical pesticides. On my right was the President of Pesticide Association with equally strong views about how the chemical pesticides have greatly helped in feeding the hungry world. My task was further made difficult by a large lobby of green activists in the audience and also a number of seasoned industrialists with opposite views. Such a scenario is becoming increasingly common.

Plants are important to humankind not only economically, environmentally and industrially but also spiritually, historically and aesthetically, they sustain human life through direct and indirect gains by providing a wide range of products for survival and prosperity. Bio-aesthetic planning to a large extent is a product of the age. With the advancement in agriculture and increase in population, large settlements developed, marking the beginning of urbanization. More and more people moved to urban areas for comfortable life. Increasing human needs resulted in large-scale exploitation of natural resources, great reduction in forest cover and extinction of many species of flora and fauna. The extent of forest cover is a good indication of the health of the land. The large scale deforestation in recent decades has rendered the sensitive catchment areas and hilly areas particularly vulnerable to soil erosion. Professor Lancelot Hogben coined the term ‘Bio-aesthetic planning’ defined as planning of flora and fauna with the object of beautifying the piece of land (country). Bio-aesthetic planning is an aesthetic branch of Horticulture which deals with planting of ornamental plants in such a way that it creates a picturesque effect. It is a very fascinating and interesting subject. With the greater realization of environmental, ecological and socio- economic benefits of plants, scope of Bio-aesthetic planning has increased further. Bio-aesthetic planning can play important role in environmental amelioration of urban and industrial areas along with their beautification.

Definition: Bio-aesthetic planning is recognized as the aesthetic branch of horticulture which deals with planting of ornamental plants to create a picturesque effect.

The term bio-aesthetic planning was coined by Lancelot Hogben. Egyptians were the first to adopt this type of planning in their cities. In India, M.S. Randhava was the flag bearer of bio-aesthetic planning.

India is one of the twelve mega-biodiversity countries of the world with 46,000 plant species and 81,000 animal species described so far from 70% of the total geographical area surveyed so far. Bio-aesthetic planned city in South India is Bengaluru and in North India is Chandigarh (Punjab and Haryana).

Scope: Benefits like environmental, ecological and socio-economic realizes a greater scope of bio-aesthetic planning. Potential of plants in combating pollution has not been utilized effectively so far. In bio-aesthetics, efforts should be concentrated to maintain for the next millennium, natural landscapes which appear healthy, harmonious, diverse and unique. Thus, bio-aesthetic planning can play an important role in environmental amelioration of urban and industrial areas along with their beautification.

Concept: Man has aesthetic sense and makes efforts to create orderliness and beauty. Natural forms, colours and textures have inspired most of the human art. Fulfilling recreational needs through ornamental plants and wild animals brings the idea of bio-aesthetic planning.

8.1 Introduction

One important aspect of bio-aesthetic planning is to landscape public places on a priority basis compared to private places. For this specific reason, the railway station and the railway lines should attract attention at the very outset for landscape gardening.

8.2 Definition

Bio-aesthetic planning means the proper utilization of the available flora and fauna in the beautification of the surroundings. The concept of bio-aesthetic planning is given by concept of Prof. Lancelot Hogben.

In India, the theme of bio-aesthetic planning was propagated by Dr. M. S. Randhawa. Le Corbusier and his associates, Pierre Jeanneret, E. Maxwell Fry and Jane B. Drew had planned Chandigarh city as per the principles of bioaesthetic planning.

Poisoned food technique

The principle involved is to poison the medium with fungi toxicants and then allow a test fungus to grow on such medium. The test may be performed both on solid and liquid medium.

Procedure

On solid medium

•Prepare potato dextrose agar medium.

•Add required amount of fungicide and thoroughly mixed.

•The medium is poured into sterilized Petri-plates.

•A culture of test fungus is grown on PDA for a certain period (generally seven days) at the optimum temperature for growth.

•Small disc (7 mm) of fungus culture is cut with sterile cork borer and each Petri plates are centrally inoculated aseptically containing the medium with desired fungicidal concentration.

•Suitable checks are kept where the culture discs are grown under the same conditions on PDA without fungicide.

•The fungal colony diameter is measured at every 24 hr.

The per capita consumption of fish has been 3.2kg on an average up to 1992 as against estimated requirement of 11.0 kg pisciculture has the potentiality of popularity. Fish is rightly considered as the “Poor man’s diet”. It is almost zero carbohydrate food, good for diabetics and other such patients. Fish is a rich source of protein, vitamins and minerals. A special feature of fish flesh food is content of vitamin B12, which is almost absent in plant food and also a good source of calcium and vitamin A. Fish also contains polyunsaturated fatty acids which are known to provide protection against cardio-vascular diseases. This has got advantages over the other meat food.

Planktophagus fishes have higher protein contents then do fish with other feeding habits.

When flesh of fish is put to an analysis the following major components are observed.

Introduction

Color is an important characteristic of food. Based on the color of the food, f irst impressions are made: Is the fruit immature, ripe, or overripe? Is the toast burnt? Is the food fresh? Based on these first impressions, a judgment is made whether the food is safe to eat or not and whether it can be expected to taste good or not. Since color is closely associated with expectations, the addition of color to food is a way to fulfill these expectations. Color is added to food for one or more of the following reasons:

1. To replace color lost during processing,

2. To enhance color already present,

3. To minimize batch-to batch variations, and

4. To color otherwise uncolored food.

Biological control of disease employs natural enemies of pests or pathogens to eradicate or control their population. Interactions that lead to biocontrol can include antibiosis, competition, induction of host resistance, and predation. Some of the microbial taxa that have been successfully commercialized and are currently marketed include bacteria belonging to the genera Agrobacterium, Bacillus, Pseudomonas and Streptomyces and fungi belonging to the genera Ampelomyces, Candida, Coniothyrium and Trichoderma.

•Dual Culture Technique: For in vitro screening, performance of antagonist isolates in dual culture (Morton and Stroube, 1955) with test pathogen can be tested.

•Pour 15-20 ml of sterilized melted PDA in 9 cm Petriplates and allowed to solidify.

•Place the bits (5 mm) of the test pathogen and antagonist on the PDA plates opposite to each other from 1.0 cm from the periphery of plates (if both are fast growing) or place it 2-3 cm apart (if both are slow growing).

•The Petriplates are incubated (at 28 ± 2^oC) for desired duration.

•Periodical observation on the growth of the antagonists and the ability of the antagonist to colonise the pathogen are recorded.

Abstract

A field experiment was carried out during rabi 2012-13 at Bihar Agricultural College farm, Sabour, Bhagalpur to assess the effect of different herbicides on microbial population dynamics of soil in winter maize (Zea mays L.). The experiment comprised of ten weed management treatments involving various herbicides (acetochlor @ 1.125, 2.25 and 4.5 kg a.i. ha^-1, atrazine @ 1.0 kg a.i. ha^-1, pendimethalin @ 0.5 kg a.i. ha^-1 + atrazine @ 0.5 kg a.i. ha^-1, alachlor @ 0.5 kg a.i. ha^-1 as pre-emergence and 2,4-Diethyl ester @ 0.6 kg a.i. ha^-1and topramezone @ 0.04 kg a.i. ha^-1+ atrazine @ 0.25 kg a.i. ha^-1 as post-emergence including weed free and weedy check laid in randomized block design with three replications. Results indicated that all the herbicides’ treatment showed significant adverse effect on microbial population in rhizospheric soil of winter maize up to 45 days after sowing. Further, there was reduction in soil microbial population occurred in all the herbicides treated plots up to said time period as compared with weed free and weedy check. Initially the soil microbial population in weed free plot was much higher than that of weedy check, however, it was found in reverse trends in rest of the time intervals as well as harvest. Thereafter, soil microbial population was gradually increasing at different time intervals and at harvest, their population increased considerably in herbicidal treated plots though the weed free and weedy check showed higher soil microbial population than other herbicide treated plots.

Introduction
The majority of the world’s population consumes plant-based meals, which frequently lack important micronutrients and fail to satisfy recommended daily allowances (RDAs). Micronutrient inadequacy, also known as ‘hidden hunger,’ affects one in every three individuals worldwide (FAO, 2013). The growing worldwide population, expected to reach 9.8 billion by 2050 (United Nations, 2017), has increased the demand for high-quality food. Unfortunately, the emphasis on food quantity has frequently outweighed issues of food quality. Undernourishment is a major issue, especially in emerging and undeveloped nations where diets are inadequate and largely reliant on staple commodities such as grains (Datta & Vitolins, 2016). Poor lifestyle and dietary choices contribute to food insecurity (Gakidou et al., 2017). To address endemic nutritional deficits, fortification or supplementing techniques have been used (Bouis et al., 2017). Biofortification, which involves breeding nutrient-rich staple crop types, is a low-cost and environmentally friendly way to give important micronutrients. While biofortified staple foods may not contain as many minerals and vitamins as supplements or industrially fortified items, they do help to improve daily micronutrient intake throughout the lifespan (Bouis et al., 2011). Success stories of biofortification include lysine and tryptophan rich quality protein maize won World food prize 2000, Vitamin A rich orange sweet potato won World food prize 2016. It is vital to highlight that biofortification alone cannot completely remove micronutrient deficiencies; however, it can supplement existing initiatives and help vulnerable groups.

Introduction
The ecosystem recycles nutrients. Approximately forty chemical elements are thought to be necessary for the existence of living things. The earth’s system contains finite materials, hence the only way to maintain it functioning continually is to regenerate the components.
Definition
The term “biogeochemical cycle” refers to the periodic transfer of elements between living organisms (the biotic phase) and their non-living ,(abiotic) environments, such as rocks, water, and air. These cycles, which primarily involve water, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus, are essential to life.
While micronutrients like Cu, Fe, and Co are derived from soil-based edaphic cycles, macronutrients like C, H, O, P, K, N, S, Mg, and Ca are cyclized with the atmosphere.There are two types of bio-geochemical cycles: gaseous and sedimentary cycles. The soil serves as the primary reservoir for nutrients in sedimentary cycles, such as the phosphorus and sulfur cycles, while the atmosphere and oceans serve as the primary reservoirs for nutrients in gaseous cycles, such as the nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen cycles. The biotic and abiotic systems are involved in both cycles. Both are fueled by energy flow and connected to either the hydrologic or water cycles.
• The nitrogen cycle, which involves gaseous components, is the naturalprocess by which nitrogen and nitrogen-containing molecules are transformed.

Abstract
Managing weeds in agricultural productivity poses a formidable challenge. An increasingly common weed control strategy in ecologically friendly farming systems is integrated weed management, which involves bioherbicides. Ensuring global food security and environmental safety heavily relies on the sustainability of agricultural production. Worldwide, sustainable agricultural approaches, including the maintenance of a permanent layer of soil cover, the minimization of soil disruption, the implementation of regular crop rotations, the practice of integrated weed control, and the adoption of conservation agriculture, are becoming increasingly popular. Bio-herbicides are commonly derived from plants containing phytotoxic allelochemicals or specialized bacteria that can induce diseases and reduce the population of weeds within a given area. However, bio-herbicides have demonstrated significant potential in inhibiting the germination and spread of weed seeds. Bio-herbicides offer a promising, environmentally friendly, promising solution for weed control, as they are derived from natural sources such as bacteria, plants, or biochemical compounds. This study investigates the effectiveness, environmental benefits, and challenges of using bio-herbicides to achieve sustainable weed control. Bio-herbicides possess the capacity to reduce dependency on artificial pesticides, eradicate unintended harm to non-target organisms, and foster a more harmonious ecosystem by employing biological agents to target particular weeds selectively.
Keywords: Bio-herbicide, allelochemicals, weeds, sustainable agriculture.

Introduction

In the middle of the 1900s, the world experienced a big increase in people, leading to a greater need for food. This demand for more food pushed for a farming revolution called the “green revolution.” This revolution used chemicals to help grow more crops and fight plant diseases. But using lots of these chemicals caused problems for the environment and people’s health. Even with all these chemicals, a large amount of food (up to 25% of what’s grown) is still lost to diseases each year. By 2050, we might need to double how much food we make. To do this without harming the environment or health, we’re looking for new ways. Some ideas include making plants that are genetically modified, creating plant varieties that resist pests naturally, and using helpful microorganisms like certain bacteria and fungi. These helpful organisms can be used in different ways, like making soil healthier or protecting plants.

The microorganisms colonizing plant roots generally include bacteria, algae, fungi, protozoa and actinomycetes. Enhancement of plant growth and development by application of these microbial populations is well evident. Among different microbial populations present in the rhizosphere, bacteria are the most abundant microorganisms. Various genera of bacteria, Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Bacillus, Variovorax, Klebsiella, Burkholderia, Azospirillum, Serratia and Azotobacter, cause a pronounced effect on plant growth and are termed as plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR). PGPR play a significant role in enhancing plant growth and development both under non stress and stress conditions by a number of direct and indirect mechanisms. Microbes exert key functions in ecosystems being involved in nitrogen fixation, phosphorus solubilization, soil formation, and production of siderophores, plant growth regulators and organic acids as well as protection by enzymes like ACC-deaminase, chitinase and glucanase.

Bio-Inputs introduces the concept, scope, and functional diversity of biological inputs used in sustainable agriculture and natural farming. The chapter classifies bio-inputs by core components, including microorganisms, biological extracts, and biomolecules, and then by functions such as bio-fertilizers, bio-stimulants, biomejorators, and biological control agents. It also presents microbial and biological inputs within Integrated Pest Management, emphasizing biopesticides, biofungicides, and plant-defense elicitors. Examples such as Rhizobium, Trichoderma, Bacillus, Pseudomonas, seaweed extracts, vermiwash, neem extracts, and oligosaccharins illustrate how biological resources can improve nutrient availability, plant growth, crop protection, stress tolerance, and ecological sustainability. in contemporary agricultural practice. for sustainable crop production.

1. Microscope

The microscope is a precious instrument. There are many small objects or details of objects which cannot be seen by the unaided human eye.
 
A microscope (from Greek: mikrós, means “small” and skopeîn, means “to look”) is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye.  In another word microscope is an optical instrument that uses a lens or a combination of lenses to produce magnified images of small objects, especially of objects too small to be seen by the unaided eye.

Introduction

Agriculture sector plays an important role in economy of India and contributes 18% to the GDP. It ensuring food security for more than1.26 billion Indian populations with diminishing cultivable land resource is a herculean task. Pesticides have been the most effective weapons and play vital role in crop protection against agricultural insect-pests. The green revolution technology has been characterized by use of hybrids/ improved varieties, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation water. After green revolution agricultural production has been very impressive but the excessive use of fertilizers and harmful pesticides has resulted in several undesirable effects on the environment and on the farming systems. However, indiscriminate use of synthetic chemical pesticides over the last four decades has adversely affected human health, non target organisms and environment and has also enhanced development of pesticide resistance among pest species While the former is exemplified by pesticide residues in soil, air, water, food etc., the latter includes phytotoxicity, physiological deform ities, diseases, mortality, population changes, genetic disorders, gene erosion, etc. in plant, mammal, avian, insect and other organisms. Entry of chemical pesticides into food chain and their bioaccumulation triggers several unforeseen consequences. However, in the conventional agriculture most of the weeds, pests, insects and diseases were controlled using natural and sustainable practices such as cultural, mechanical and physical control strategies. Environmental safety and agricultural sustainability are equally important for survival on the Earth. Therefore, it is the need of hour to identify the alternatives of suitable pesticides to control the insects-pests without sacrificing the productivity and profitability. Chemical pesticides has many side effects, eco-friendly management is essentially required for sustainable crop production in the present scenario.

The concept of insect pest management and the strategies employed have evolved over the time. With the increased emphasis on safe agricultural practices and elevated demand for safe and healthy food, the various solutions for pest management have shifted more towards use of biocontrol agents. Bio- rational pest management methods have now evolved as important pillar of the integrated pest management to replace the synthetic insecticides and also other associated advantages. They include the use of botanical pesticides, insect growth regulators, pheromones and allelochemicals. The major positive attributes associated with all of them are their low mammalian toxicity, safety to beneficial and non-target organisms, higher specificity, low risk of development of resistance and low environmental persistence. Though bio-rational insecticides are considered to be safe, in an organic ecosystem, it should be done with caution because over reliance on them for longer periods may facilitate the target insect pests to develop some kind of resistance against them. So, proper deliberations on the positive and negative attributes of bio rational pest management strategies should be done so as to facilitate their long term usage in organic farming.

The production of fruit and vegetables has recently increased significantly and even surpassed the total grain production in the country due to increased awareness of consumer and positive government initiatives (Schieber et al., 2001; Sagar et al., 2018; Malenica and Bhat, 2020). But due to limited production and area, the importance of excess production during a particular season and waste management arises at highest priority level. Moreover, fruits and vegetables waste are a serious problem for environment as most of themare being disposed of as landfills or directly disposed off to water bodies such as rivers (Wadhwa and Bakshi, 2013). Fruits and vegetables are perishable in nature and rich source of nutrients and vitamins, which results in microbiological contamination (Coman et al., 2019; Bas-Bellver et al., 2020). Foods wastes are usually organic residues generated by the processing of raw agricultural materials into food and are made up of liquid (wastewater) and solids (Bas-Bellver et al., 2020). The wastewater results from the cleaning processes or in the form of excessive or polluted process water. Its dry material content is typically less than 5% by mass. It possibly also contains organic or inorganic cleaning agents or disinfectants. Solid food wastes with an organic origin have remarkably high water content (mostly about 80% by mass). They are usually characterized by a constant quality and purity due to the forgone processes. The fact that these substances are removed from the production process as undesirable ingredients makes them, wastes.

1. Introduction

Malaria remains one of the most serious tropical diseases and kills an estimated one to two million people each year worldwide (Snow et al., 2005). Spread of drug resistance has played an important role in the occurrence and severity of epidemic diseases in the world (Majori, 2004). As a consequence of resistance to drugs such as quinine, chloroquine, primaquine and mefloquine, the vehemence of malaria has increased in many endemic regions of the world (Schlitzer, 2007; Basco et al., 1994). One of the biggest challenges to malaria control is the emergence and spread of drug resistant P. falciparum strains. Although human malaria transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes has four Plasmodium species as its aetiological agents P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovaleand P. malariae, the most widespread and severe disease is caused by P. falciparum, which transiently infects the liver before invading red blood cells of the mammalian host. Clinical manifestations occur at the erythrocytic stage and can include fever, chills, prostration and anaemia, as well as delirium, metabolic acidosis, cerebral malaria and multi-organ system failure, which may be followed by coma and death (Fidock et al., 2004; Deprez-Poulain et al., 2005, De Sa et al., 2009).The success of the natural product-based antimalarials such as quinine and artemisinin has showed the importance of plants as potential source of antimalarial agents. Consequently, numerous efforts to identify antiplasmodial activities from plants traditionally used as remedies for fever and malaria (Chen et al., 1997; Havsteen, 2002;

Abstract

Rice is the most produced and consumed source of stable food in J andK, and is excellent in genetic diversity. Rice production is the principal activity and a major source of income for the State. Traditional rice varieties have an enhancing potential in wide range of nutraceutical and functional foods. Besides possessing medicinal and nutritional properties, the by-products generated from these rice varieties in various post harvest operations are equally valuable. Traditional healers and local farmers have been using these traditional varieties in ayurveda and in curing of various kinds of ailments, such as cooling the body in ayurvedic treatments, improving vocal clarity, curing of boils, swellings and skin blemishes. Extracts of brown rice are also used as energy drink in individuals, patients and in treatment of chronic gastric problems, jaundice, dysenteric complaints and to increase lactation and nutrition to Childs. Sticky glutinous rice has been reported in treatment of stomach upsets, nausea, heart-burn and indigestion. Brown rice extracts have been reported in treatments of breast and stomach cancer and warts.

Introduction

Antioxidants are substances, which retard or prevent deterioration, damage or destruction caused by oxidation. Fortunately, the body has an army of antioxidants for damage limitation. Antioxidant form an integral part of the nutraceutical market. During the last few years’ research has confirmed that many have the common disease and ailments of 21^st century (Coronary Vascular Disease, diabetes, cataracts, high blood pressure, infertilities, respiratory infection, and rheumatoid arthritis) are associated with tissue deficiency and/or low dietary levels of compounds called antioxidants. The oxygen is consumed in the body during metabolism by process called oxidation. During oxidation free radicals are generated. These free radicals at a molecular level burn everything they touch. Antioxidants are power full electron donors and react with free radicals which damage the biomolecules. The formed antioxidant radical is stable and non-reactive. Antioxidants are quite large in number and diverse in nature which oppose the process of oxidation largely by neutralizing free radicals at relatively small concentrations and also have the potential to inhibit the oxidant chain reactions.

Abstract
Marine sponges are a rich source of bioactive compounds with diverse therapeutic properties, including antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-inflam-matory and antidiabetic effects. These organisms produce a wide range of secondary metabolites that help them survive in harsh marine environments and offer significant potential for drug development. The bioactive molecules derived from sponges, such as anticancer agents like Ara-C and novel antibiotics, are increasingly studied for their applications in pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals. This review highlights the importance of marine sponges as valuable sources of functional ingredients with promising health benefits and therapeutic applications.
Keywords: Marine Sponges, Aquatic Environment, Drug Development, Oceanic Bioactive Compound

Introduction

Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) grows in dry and arid regions of Arabia and in regions of India mainly Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Gujarat, Western Uttar Pradesh and drier parts of Deccan. The tree is locally known as Jandi or Khejri (India), Jand (Pakistan) and Ghaf (Arabic). It is the State tree of Rajasthan, India. Prosopis cineraria are small to medium size evergreen thorny tree. It is also known as “wonder tree” and “king of desert” as all the parts of tree are useful. The importance of the medicinal value of this tree has been highlighted in our ancient literature. The bark of the tree has abortifacient and laxative properties and is also used as a remedy for rheumatism in the central provinces. The leaves are of high nutritive value and locally called ‘’Loong’’. Leaf paste of P. cineraria is applied on boils and blisters, including mouth ulcers in livestock. The smoke of the leaves is considered good for eye troubles. Leaf extracts of P. cineraria have been reported to show antibacterial, antihyperglycemic, antihyperlipidemic and antioxidative activities . Pods are brown to chocolate in colour on ripening, each containing several seeds embedded in sweet dry yellow pulp. P. cineraria pods are locally called ‘’sangar’’ or ‘’sangri’’. The pod is considered astringent in Punjab. Sangri pods are known to prevent protein and mineral deficiency. Cooked pods of Khejri are used as a functional food in Rajasthan, for the amelioration of numerous illnesses. Pods of khejri have been studied for various phytochemicals like alkaloids, saponins, tannins, flavanoids, flavanols and total phenolics. As this plant is found in water stress (or deficient area) so antioxidant potential of pods has also been investigated. Acetone and methanol extracts of Sangri pods are the most potent bioactive extracts. Nutritional analysis shows it as a good source of proteins and minerals like calcium, sodium and potassium. This study demonstrates that P. cineraria pods may be employed as nutraceutical food with rich nutrition, disease prevention and health promoting effects.

1. Introduction 
Among the innumerable gifts of nature, plants, animals and minerals have been the basis of treatment of human diseases. Generally it is either of prebiotic origin or originating from microbes, plants or animal sources. More likely they are the natural expression of the increase in complexity of organisms. Beside animals, plants are one of the most important sources of natural products. From the very beginning of their existence, man has acquainted himself with plants and used them in a variety of ways throughout the ages. In search of food and to cope successfully with human sufferings, ancient man began to distinguish those plants suitable for nutritional purposes from others with definitive therapeutic action. Some plants are widely used as food while others showed beneficial effects against various human sufferings such as injuries and diseases. This relationship has grown between plants and man, and many plants have come to be used as drugs. The use of plant as a drug can be divided broadly into five periods. The early period covers the Indian, Chinese, Sumerian, Egyptian and Assyrian civilizations followed by the Greco-Roman, Arabian, Medieval and modern periods (Buchnman, 1980). Among ancient civilisations, India has been known to be rich repository of medicinal plants as the forest in India is the principal repository of large number of medicinal and aromatic plants, which are largely collected as raw materials for manufacture of drugs and perfumery products. About 8,000 herbal remedies have been codified in Ayurveda. The Rigveda (5000 BC) has recorded 67 medicinal plants (Chopra et al., 1956), Yajurveda 81 species and Atharvaveda (4500-2500 BC) 290 species. Charak Samhita (700 BC) and Sushrut Samhita (200 BC) had described properties and uses of 1100 and 1270 species, respectively (Kirtikar & Basu, 1918; Baquar, 1989) in compounding of drugs and these are still used in the classical formulations, in the Ayurvedic system of medicine. Before the availability of synthetic drugs, medicinal plants were used as the most primary source of medicine and continue to provide the mankind with new remedies for many diseases. These were used in crude forms like expressed juice, powder, decoction or infusion. As the plant have specialized biochemical capabilities they are able to synthesize and accumulate a vast array of primary and secondary chemical constituents or phytochemicals (Ghazanfar, 1994). Phytochemicals are responsible for metabolic activities and used for defense purpose. They are produced by specific biochemical pathways, which occur inside the plant cells. Due to their physical characteristic and chemical properties these chemical constituents are highly beneficial to the mankind and most importantly in primary health care. The first chemical substance isolated from plants was benzoic acid (Figure 1) discovered in 1560. The potent pain-killer, morphine (Figure 1) was separated from the dried latex of Papaver somniferum L. (opium) by F. W Serturner (1783-1814). The bioactive molecule, ephedrine (Figure 1) is one of the most potent plant based medicine and was isolated from Ephedra sinica (Ma huang). It was used in the form of various salts to combat bronchial asthma (Tang & Eisenbrand, 1992). Reserpine (Figure 1) an indole alkaloid, obtained from the roots of Indian plant, Rauwolfia serpentina, was used to treat hypertension. Taxol (Figure 1) is a diterpenoid first isolated from the stem bark of pacific Yew, Taxus brevifolia and used against ovarian for the treatment of ovarian cancer.

Summary

The present era is witness of understanding the science of human diseases at molecular level. The advances of science in terms of Genomics, Proteomics, Metaboliomics, Lipidomics and bioinformatics have drawn an excellent pathway to discover more promising drugs. It’s still a challenging task to reduce the time line to discover new drug, which is approximately 10-15 years. A drug discovery program requires billions of dollars but without the promise of success. After screening of thousands of compounds only one becomes successful in clinical trials and reaches to the market. Although there are lot many ways to approach drug discovery, nature has gifted many interesting compounds to fight the diseases. On the other hand isolation of pure compounds from natural products like bacteria found in soil or different parts of plants is itself a challenging area. The modern fashion of natural product isolation is guided by bioactivity. Hence a feasible assay to access the bioactivity has got a great importance.

Abstract

Milk is the almost complete and highly nutritious food for mammals, as it supplies all the energy and nutrients needed for the proper growth and development of the neonate. Milk proteins are considered the most key source of bioactive peptides and an increasing number of bioactive peptides have been identified in fermented dairy products and milk protein hydrolysates,. These bioactive peptides are sequences between 2 and 20 amino acids that improve the physiological functions and inhibit chronic diseases. The bioactive peptides are inactive within the sequence of the origin protein and can be released by addition of various types of proteolytic enzymes, coagulation enzymes and starter culture during milk processing. Once bioactive peptides are release in the body, these peptides may act as regulatory compounds with hormone-like activity. Furthermore, bioactive peptides from milk proteins have many biological activities such as antimicrobial, antihypertensive, antithrombotic, antioxidant, mineral binding, and anti-diabetic. Due to their physiological and physico-chemical variability, milk bioactive peptides are considered as greatly important components for health stimulating foods or pharmaceutical applications. Over the past few decades, major advances and developments have been achieved on the novel bioactive peptide and commercial applications of bioactive components which are present naturally in the milk. The aim of this chapter is to focus on the bioactive peptide present in milk, extraction of bioactive peptide, functional capability of bioactive peptides in milk and their importance in human health including bio active peptide based commercial dairy products.

1. Introduction
Aquaculture, the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and aquatic plants, plays an essential role in global food security and economic development. As the demand for sustainable and efficient fish farming practices grows, the need to optimize fish health, growth, and feed efficiency becomes increasingly crucial. One emerging area of interest in aquaculture nutrition is the use of bioactive peptides, which offer a natural and effective alternative to synthetic feed additives.
Bioactive peptides are short chains of amino acids, typically ranging from 2 to 20 residues, which are derived from protein sources. These peptides are typically inactive within the parent protein but become bioactive once they are released through specific processes, including enzymatic hydrolysis, microbial fermentation, or gastrointestinal digestion. The peptides exhibit a wide range of biological activities that can directly benefit fish and shellfish health. Their functional properties include antimicrobial, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, antihypertensive, and growth-promoting activities, making them valuable components of aquafeeds.
The integration of bioactive peptides into aquaculture systems offers an innovative and environmentally sustainable approach to enhancing the health and performance of aquatic species. By replacing or complementing conventional feed additives, such as antibiotics and synthetic growth promoters, bioactive peptides can improve feed efficiency, disease resistance, and immune function, thereby promoting better overall productivity.

Introduction

For the past few decades, a number of chemical feed additives such as antibiotics, ionophores, methane inhibitors and defaunating agents have been introduced into ruminant nutrition in order to improve rumen fermentation, and increase growth and milk production by improving intake and feed conversion efficiency. However, most of these supplements are not used routinely because of toxicity problems to the host animals and microbial adaptation to these additives. Most importantly, growing awareness from public health aspects has centered on the safety of tissue residues of these chemicals and also bacterial resistance to antibiotics as a result of increased use in the food chain. These supplements have been criticized by the consumers’ organizations on the ground of product safety and quality. Antibiotic feed additives are banned in European Union. The consumers’ demands have drived the search for natural alternatives to chemical feed additives for eco-friendly animal production. Plants are part of herbivore diets, and these plants contain bioactive compounds with antimicrobial properties can be of interest in animal nutrition. Therefore, recent research has been greatly focused to exploit bioactive plant secondary compounds as natural feed additives to improve rumen fermentation such as enhancing protein metabolism, decreasing methane production, reducing nutritional stress like bloat, and improving animal health and productivity (Wallace et al., 2002; Patra and Saxena, 2009a, b; 2010; 2011), which may be useful in eco-friendly livestock farming (Patra, 2007). This review discusses the effects of different plant metabolites on rumen fermentation, rumen microbial ecosystems and ruminant performance.

Introduction

A sustainable approach to managing pests by combining biological, cultural, physical and chemical tools in a way that minimizes economic, health and environmental risks. The objective for IPM practitioners is to minimize risks to human health and the environment from the pest management actions implemented. IPM is a holistic approach that seeks to manage pests by using methods that are effective, economically sound, and ecologically compatible. IPM practitioners base decisions on information that is collected systematically as they integrate economic, environmental, and social goals. IPM promotes the use and integration of biological control agent as one of the strategies for pest and disease management. Because, biological control of plant pathogen is a potential alternative to the use of environment harming chemical pesticides in agriculture.

A bioassay, also known as a biological assay, is a scientific experiment used to quantify the impact of a substance on a living organism. According to Finney (1952), bioassay is defined as measurement of potency of any stimulus (physical, chemical, biological, physiological) by means of reactions which it produces in living matter. It is an essential procedure in insecticide development and the assessment of environmental pollutants, as well as the evaluation of the effects of interventions viz. pesticides and herbicides on the environment. In the field of biostatistics, a bioassay refers to a set of techniques used to determine the quantity or intensity of an agent or stimulus based on the response of the subject. Typically, many methods are employed to assess the strength or effectiveness of an insecticide by examining its impact on living organisms.

An insecticide is a pesticide used to kill or eliminate insect pests in agriculture, households, and industries. Judicious use of insecticides may be a factor in the increase of agricultural productivity, but by their nature of having high toxicity to non target organisms and capability to develop resistance through widespread use, most insecticides have high potential to significantly affect and alter ecosystems. Many are toxic to humans and animals (both domestic and wildlife), and can accumulate as concentrates in the food chain and water resources, giving rise to serious environmental contamination and pollution.

Biological assay or bioassay

• A bioassay is an analytical method to determine the concentration or potency of a substance by its effect on living animals or plants (in vivo), or on living cells or tissues (in vitro).

• Bio-assays are thus a type of experiments with the object of comparing the efficacy of two or more substances, or preparations, like drugs, by using responses produced by them on suitable living organisms.

• The bio assay involves a stimulus applied to a subject and the response of the subject to the stimulus.

• When a stimulus is applied to a subject there may be a change in some characteristics of the subject. Such changes in the subject are known as responses.

• The response may be quantitative as in the case of weight or qualitative as in the case of mortality. The magnitude of response depends upon the dose.

• Normally, two preparations having a common effect are taken for assaying. One of the preparations is of known strength and is called the standard preparation and the other is of unknown strength and is called test preparation.