eChapters

Introduction

The main goal of plant breeding is to increase crop yield and the second goal is to improve quality, develop light- and heat-insensitive varieties, tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses, simultaneous maturation, and water and nutrient use. Efficiency, elimination of toxins, and cultivation of different product groups allow to achieve high agricultural yields and sustainable development. Better understanding and development of genetics has increased the efficiency of plant breeding to achieve desired goals in agricultural crops. Effective and efficient use of molecular markers in crop improvement programs increases selection efficiency and productivity and accelerates the growth cycle to create new varieties with good results. Marker assisted selection (MAS) is a technique that uses markers (morphological, biochemical, or DNA/RNA variation-based markers) to indirectly select for traits of interest (e.g., productivity, disease, genetic determinants resistance, abiotic stress tolerance and/or quality). This process is used in plant and animal breeding. The rapid development of biotechnology has allowed breeders to develop better selections to replace traditional selections based on phenotypic pedigree.

Crabs are one of the fast-growing animals from phylum arthropod. Freshwater crabs is now becoming as an important shellfish in freshwater aquaculture production due to its delicacy and nutritional richness. Freshwater crabs are considered good for human consumption and economically important crustacean in many developing countries such as India, China, Nigeria, Japan etc. Freshwater crabs are distributed in the tropical region of the world and they spend their entire lives in freshwater. In Indian territory Western ghats of Maharashtra and north east part of India are considerably more diverse in freshwater crab biodiversity. While only freshwater crab species Barytelphusa cunicularis is commonly observed all over India. In Maharashtra Kolhapur and Konkan region stands out for well-established crab market, driven by high freshwater crab consumption. Freshwater crab serve as good protein food, lipid and cheap carbohydrate source as well as valuable mineral source for human consumption particularly tribal and poor people. Freshwater crab aquaculture, like other types of aquaculture practices, offers a wide range of culture systems, extensive monoculture to intensive monoculture. In freshwater crab aquaculture crab farmers mainly prefers Barytelphusa cunicularis as a culture species.

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is known for many biological activities including potent cardioprotective properties. Meta analysis of human data strongly correlated diminished plasma level of DHEA with hypertension and age related anomalies and has been in clinical trial for efficacies against CVDs and hypertension. It was isolated for the first time in 1934 by Butenandt and Dannenbaum, later in 1944 extracted from human plasma (Oka et al., 2007). It is a 3β-hydroxysteroid, metabolized from pregnenolone, secreted from cells of zonareticulata of adrenal gland. Age-related decline in serum DHEA and DHEA-S(sulphate) is found to be associated with number of diseases including cardiovascular diseases, insulin resistance, cancer etc. (Arlt et al., 1999). Besides, DHEA dilates arteries, modulate hypoxia-induced vasoconstriction by activating potassium channels through soluble guanylatecyclase (sGC) activation, (Oka et al., 2007) and enhance endothelial function in particular via increasing nitric oxide synthesis (Haixian et al., 2019), induced relaxation in high K+ -induced contraction in thoracic aorta of rat embryo (Ochi et al., 2018). However, DHEA has never been explored as a vasorelaxant in mesenteric vascular bed, the major resistance bed of the circulatory system as well as its contribution in blockade of VDCC as possible mechanism for vasorelaxation. To date, the physiological role of DHEA in systemic vascular tissue as a vasorelaxant remains largely unknown and its potential use in the treatment of hypertension in human still remain inconclusive due to the increase in the risk of hormone driven cancer (Clark et al, 2018). Hence, we have chosen to explore the potential of DHEA as a vasorelaxant in conduit blood vessels like aorta and resistance blood vessels like mesenteric artery and elucidation of possible mechanism of vasorelaxation. Further, we also wanted to test the hypothesis whether in-vivo treatment of hypertensive rats with proven traditional medicine with known efficacy and acceptability could restore the level of DHEA in animal model of hypertension so as to have the beneficial effect of DHEA but without any adverse effect from external administration.

Soil is a loose surface material that provides water, nutrients, and structural support to agricultural plants. It is made up of 45% minerals, 5% organic components, 25% air, and 25% water. Our soils are said to be the source of 95% of the food we eat, either directly or indirectly.

The basis of the food chain is healthy soil. Our soils are the foundation of agriculture and the growing media for almost all plants that provide food. Good crops come from good soils, and healthy crops feed people and other animals. Food quantity and quality are, in fact, closely related to soil quality.

A healthy soil is a dynamic, living ecosystem. It is packed with both microscopic and larger organisms that carry out a multitude of essential tasks, such as nutrient cycling—the process of turning dead and decaying matter and minerals into plant nutrients controlling plant diseases and insect and weed pests, enhancing soil structure, which has a positive impact on the soil's ability to hold water and nutrients, and ultimately increasing crop productivity. Because healthy soil retains or increases its carbon content, it also helps to mitigate climate change.

Technology Scouting and Innovations in Technology Incubation
Technology scouting and innovations in technology incubation have a symbiotic relationship, fuelling each other for the benefit of budding startups and the broader technology ecosystem. Let’s dive deeper into their individual roles and how they interact:
Technology Scouting
Technology Scouting is the process of discovering, analyzing and evaluating new or existing technologies that will help them with their innovation process. In simple terms, it is a process for companies to find the necessary technology outside the company.
Hunting for promising technologies: Scouts actively search for emerging technologies, patents, research advancements, and market trends across various sectors.
Evaluating potential and fit: They assess the technical feasibility, market potential, and compatibility with the needs of incubators and their supported startups.
Connecting innovators and ventures: Scouts bridge the gap between technology creators (researchers, inventors, startups) and potential users (incubators, established companies).
Fuelling innovation pipelines: Technology scouting helps incubators access a wider range of technologies and ideas, enriching their portfolio and diversifying the innovations supported.

Introduction
The testicle is a unique and important reproductive organ that serves two main purposes. The primary purpose is the development of mature spermatozoa that are able to fertilise the egg.The production of hormones, which plays a role in ensuring that mature spermatozoa are delivered to mature eggs where fertilisation may take place, must be considered a supplemental function to the development of germ cells. The induction of behavioristic
reactions—also referred to as sex drive or mating instincts—and the provision of a means of transportation for spermatozoa, as well as the regulation of ejaculate—either its release into the aquatic medium surrounding the egg in the case of lower vertebrates or its introduction into female passages through an organ of intromission—are the two concrete necessities involved. The animal loses its ability to reproduce as long as either the production of germ cells or the propensity to mate is impaired, even though the two processes undoubtedly work in tandem to achieve the end result.

Abstract
Aquatic weeds, such as duckweed, present a dual challenge and opportunity within aquatic ecosystems and the poultry feed industry. These fast-growing plants, often deemed nuisances due to their potential to disrupt ecosystems, offer significant potential as alternative feed sources. Duckweed, a floating aquatic plant, is particularly noteworthy due to its high protein content, rapid growth rate, and nutrient recycling capabilities. In freshwater systems, excessive growth of aquatic weeds can lead to decreased ecosystem productivity, hypoxia, and anoxia, making effective management crucial. However, duckweed’s ability to thrive in nutrient-rich conditions and its high nutritional value, including substantial protein and essential vitamins, position it as a valuable feed ingredient for poultry. The Indian poultry sector, growing at an annual rate of 8-10%, faces challenges such as rising feed costs and limited availability of conventional feed ingredients. Integrating duckweed into poultry diets can provide a cost-effective, sustainable alternative that reduces reliance on traditional feed sources and supports ecosystem management. This approach not only addresses feed shortages but also contributes to environmental sustainability by recycling nutrients and mitigating pollution. Despite its potential, challenges such as lack of standardized regulations and market acceptance remain. Continued research, policy support, and market promotion are essential to harness the full benefits of aquatic weeds.
Keywords: Aquatic, Duckweed, Poultry, Sustainable and Feed Additives

The aquarium industry represents a dynamic and growing field with broad opportunities for entrepreneurship, employment, and export. This sector encompasses a wide range of activities, including ornamental fish breeding, aquatic plant cultivation, aquarium equipment production, retail sales, and the management of public aquariums. Rising interest in aquarium keeping for leisure, home décor, and educational purposes has fueled domestic and international demand for ornamental fish and related products.
Small-scale fish breeding of species such as guppies, mollies, angelfish, and goldfish offers a practical business model that requires limited space and investment. Success in this field hinges on sound knowledge of fish biology, breeding techniques, nutrition, and water quality management. Recognized as a sunrise sector in India, ornamental fisheries benefit from supportive policies under initiatives like the National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB) and the Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY), which provide training, financial aid, and market connectivity. Entrepreneurs can also diversify into producing aquarium accessories, feed, medicines, and aquascaping services.
With proper training, regulatory compliance, and a strategic market approach, aquarium entrepreneurship can serve as a profitable livelihood or a supplementary income stream.
ORNAMENTAL FISH BREEDING IN AQUARIA
Ornamental fish breeding within aquariums involves raising visually appealing species under controlled aquatic settings. This activity caters to both enthusiasts and small-scale entrepreneurs, offering potential income through the sale of fish and associated products.

Earth’s atmosphere is a dynamic and complex system that plays a crucial role in supporting life as we know it. This chapter explores into the fascinating world of this gaseous envelope that surrounds our planet, exploring its composition, structure, and the processes that drive both our daily weather and long-term climate. It includes:
• Composition and Structure: It will begin by examining the unique blend of gases that make up the atmosphere, including nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and trace amounts of others. It will also be explored how the atmosphere is structured into distinct layers (troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere), each with its own characteristics and role.
• Weather: Weather refers to the short-term conditions of the atmosphere at a specific time and place. We’ll discuss the key elements of weather, such as temperature, pressure, humidity, wind, and precipitation, and how they interact to create the ever-changing weather patterns we experience.
• Climate: In contrast to weather, climate describes the long-term average of atmospheric conditions in a particular region. We’ll investigate the factors that influence climate, including latitude, altitude, proximity to oceans, and atmospheric circulation patterns. We’ll also explore the different climate zones found across the globe.
• Interconnectedness: A key focus of this chapter understands how weather and climate are interconnected. Daily weather patterns are influenced by the same fundamental atmospheric processes that shape long-term climate. For example, the way the sun’s energy interacts with the atmosphere drives both daily temperature variations and global climate patterns.

INTRODUCTION
Hydraulics is the study of liquids and their behavior, specifically focusing on the use of pressurized fluid to generate power in engineering systems. Hydraulic systems operate by applying pressure to a small amount of fluid, which in turn generates significant power. The development of hydraulic technology has enabled major advancements, such as lifting heavy loads and rotating large shafts with minimal effort through mechanical linkages.
Compared to mechanical and electrical systems, hydraulic power systems offer greater flexibility and produce more power relative to their size. They also provide quick and precise responses to control inputs. As a result, hydraulic systems are widely used in modern applications such as aircraft, automobiles, heavy industrial machinery, and various machine tools. This article will focus on the hydraulic systems used in tractors.
HYDROSTATIC TRANSMISSION
Hydrostatic transmissions rely entirely on hydraulics, using the power of oil to transmit energy. The system consists of two main components: a variable displacement pump and a hydraulic motor. The pump’s displacement is controlled by a movable swash plate, which adjusts the piston stroke. Essentially, the system operates as a variable-displacement hydraulic pump driving a fixed-displacement hydraulic motor.
The key benefits of hydrostatic transmissions include the ability to infinitely vary ground speed and rapidly change directions. They are also known for their reliability, with self-protecting features that prevent operator abuse.
Additionally, foot pedal-controlled systems have a built-in safety feature that allows for a controlled stop simply by lifting the foot from the pedal. However, hydrostatic transmissions have some drawbacks, including high cost, sensitivity to contamination, and slight power loss at the PTO shaft. Additionally, when

To understand how population genetics came into being, and to appreciate its intellectual significance, a brief excursion into the history of biology is necessary. Darwin’s Origin of Species, published in 1859, propounded two main theses: firstly, that modern species were descended from common ancestors, and secondly that the process of natural selection was the major mechanism of evolutionary change. The first thesis quickly won acceptance in the scientific community, but the second did not. Many people found it difficult to accept that natural selection could play the explanatory role required of it by Darwin’s theory. This situation— accepting that evolution had happened but doubting Darwin’s account of what had caused it to happen—persisted well into the twentieth century (Bowler 1988).
Opposition to natural selection was understandable, for Darwin’s theory, though compelling, contained a major lacuna: an account of the mechanism of inheritance. For evolution by natural selection to occur, it is necessary that parents should tend to resemble their offspring; otherwise, fitness-enhancing traits will have no tendency to spread through a population. In the Origin, Darwin rested his argument on the observed fact that offspring do tend to resemble their parents—‘the strong principle of inheritance’—while admitting that he did not know why this was. Darwin did later attempt an explicit theory of inheritance, based on hypothetical entities called ‘gemmules’, but it turned out to have no basis in fact.
Darwin was troubled by not having a proper understanding of the inheritance mechanism, for it left him unable to rebut a powerful objection to his theory. For a population to evolve by natural selection, the members of the population must vary—if all organisms are identical, no selection can occur. So for selection to gradually modify a population over a long period of time, in the manner suggested by Darwin, a continual supply of variation is needed. Fleeming Jenkin argued that the available variation would be used up too fast (Jenkin 1867). His reasoning assumed a ‘blending’ theory of inheritance, i.e., that an offspring’s phenotypic traits are a ‘blend’ of those of its parents. (So, for example, if a short and a tall organism mate, the height of the offspring will be intermediate between the two.) Jenkin argued that given blending inheritance, a sexually reproducing population will become phenotypically homogenous in just a few generations, far shorter than the number of generations needed for natural selection to produce complex adaptations.

8.1 Introduction
Every fusion welding procedure that uses a heat source capable of producing incredibly high weld input levels is known as high energy density welding. For welding, the density of the energy obtainable from a heat source is frequently more significant than the source’s absolute energy. Electron beam welding (EBW) and laser beam welding (LBW) are the two main categories of high energy density welding technologies. In both procedures, a very high-intensity beam is used as the heating source for the weld, and this beam’s energy is highly concentrated due to optical or electromagnetic lenses, respectively. These processes have an energy density of roughly 1010–1013 W/m2. The energy density of typical arc welding procedures is roughly 5 x108 W/m2. As fast-moving electrons in EBW and photons in LBW collide with the workpiece, their kinetic energy is converted into heat. This causes melting, vaporisation, and heating in a very small region. Due to non-uniform weld metal shrinkage or thermal contraction, penetration into the workpiece can be significant. This results in deep, thin, parallel-sided fusion welds with narrow heat-affected zones and little angular distortion. Since the electron beam welding is nearly always done autogenously, the joint fit needs to be flawless.
This welding is classified into the following types.
i. Plasma arc welding
ii. Electron Beam welding (EBW)
iii. Laser bean welding (LBW)
8.2 Plasma Arc Welding
An electric plasma arc and a non-consumable electrode are used in the fusion welding method known as plasma arc welding (PAW) to fuse metals together. The electrode is typically constructed of thoriated tungsten, just like in TIG. It is an excellent option for welding thin metals and producing deep, narrow welds because of its distinctive torch design, which provides a more focused beam than TIG welding. Compared to conventional procedures, plasma welding is frequently used to weld tough metals like aluminium, stainless steel, and others. This method, like oxy-fuel welding, can also cut metal (plasma cutting), which gives fabricators and manufacturers another useful tool.

Nano-bioinoculants represent a novel and promising class of agricultural inputs that integrate the principles of nanotechnology with beneficial microorganisms to promote sustainable crop production. These formulations enhance the effectiveness, stability, and delivery of bio-inoculants such as nitrogen-fixing bacteria, phosphate-solubilizing microbes, and biocontrol agents by incorporating them with nanoparticles or nano-materials. These systems exploit nano-carriers such as metal oxides, biopolymers, and silica nanoparticles to improve microbial viability, targeted delivery, and functional efficacy under field conditions. Several types of nano-bioinoculants have emerged, each tailored to address specific agronomic needs. Nano-formulated Rhizobium spp. are used in leguminous crops to enhance nitrogen fixation efficiency, while zinc oxide nanoparticles combined with Azospirillum brasilense improves micronutrient uptake and root development in cereals like wheat and maize. Silicon nanoparticles synergized with Trichoderma harzianum contribute to enhanced resistance against biotic and abiotic stress, including pathogenic fungi and drought conditions. Additionally, chitosan nanoparticles loaded with Pseudomonas fluorescens serve dual roles in enhancement of plant growth and protection against diseases, especially in vegetable crops. Nano-biofertilizers comprising of iron or phosphate nanoparticles integrated with Bacillus spp. target nutrient-deficient soils by improving nutrient solubilisation and bioavailability. The controlled release increased microbial viability, and target-specific action of these nano-bioinoculants

Bacterial diseases are a significant threat to human health, agriculture, and the environment. These diseases are caused by pathogenic bacteria that can infect various hosts, including humans, animals, and plants. The severity and spread of bacterial diseases are influenced by various factors, including weather parameters. Weather conditions, such as temperature, humidity, wind, and precipitation, play a crucial role in the development, dissemination, and survival of bacterial pathogens (Fig. 8.1). Fig. 8.1. Bacterial infection on soybean leaves Temperature, for instance, affects the growth and reproduction of bacteria, with optimal temperatures varying among different species. High temperatures can accelerate the growth of some bacteria, while low temperatures can slow it down or even kill them, however every pathogenic bacterium have its own weather window. For example, a daytime temperature of 35°C and nighttime temperatures of 27°C are most favorable for Xanthomonas oryzae infecting rice. Similarly, humidity influences the survival and dissemination of bacteria, with high humidity favoring the growth and spread of many bacterial pathogens. For example, lower soil moisture decreases the chances of infection of Ralstonia solanacearum in tomato plants. Wind and precipitation also impact the spread of bacterial diseases. Wind can disperse bacterial spores and cells, allowing them to reach new areas and infect new hosts. Precipitation, on the other hand, can influence the availability of moisture, which is essential for the growth and survival of many bacterial

Anthurium is one of the most important tropical cut flowers, valued for its colourful spathes, distinctive inflorescences and long vase life. This chapter presents its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical description and commercially important varieties. It explains greenhouse requirements, shade, temperature, humidity, growing media, propagation and crop establishment. Detailed attention is given to nutrient management, irrigation, cultural practices, pests, diseases, harvesting, grading and postharvest management. Modern breeding developments and commercially important cultivars are also discussed. The chapter provides an applied foundation for producing high-quality Anthurium flowers under protected cultivation and meeting domestic and export market requirements.

Plant growth is resultant of all the environmental factors – climatic, physiographic, edaphic and biotic factors.

For a particular field – it is primarily a function of climate with temperature and light – being the most important factors. – Close relationship exists between plant phenology and both latitude and altitude.

Introduction

The biological information that are being generated by research in modern biology worldwide is so huge that it is not possible to manage through conventional file keeping or simple computing. Secondly, analysis of these data certainly needs specific interfaces, software and management facilities. Therefore, such requirements to store, analyze and manage the biological information/data in an appropriate way has led to the origin of a new branch of science called “Bioinformatics”. Here, emphasis will be given on the disciplines of research mostly from which generation of data is made. Broadly, they can be classified as follows.

Some of the constraints in cashew production in the country which limits the productivity of cashew per unit area

• % Large area under cashew in the country is still covered with non-descript genetically inferior seedling progenies.

• % Cashew is a neglected plantation crop among the farmers and generally grown under neglected condition.

• % The land which is not suitable for other plantation crops only are available to cashew crop. Hence, the land which is available for cashew is usually eroded and degraded with poor soil fertility.

• % Farmers are not fully aware of the latest cashew production technologies due to inadequate transfer of technology.

• % Even if farmers are aware of the latest cashew production technologies, non adoption of recommended package of practices to the extent required.

• % Absence of compact and dwarf high yielding varieties, because of which high density planting cannot be adopted to realize the full potentiality of high density planting technology.

3.1. Introduction 

Calves are the future replacement stock of dairy farm. The raising of calves, an important operation of the dairy farm requires a great deal of managemental skill, application and constant attention. Any negligency results in increased calf mortality, poor growth and development of the calves. So, care of the calves is important for success of the dairy farm.