eChapters

18.1 Introduction

The Packaging Institute International describes packaging as the enclosure of items, packages or products in a wrapped pouch, box, bag, cup, can, tray, tube, bottle or other container for protection, preservation, containment, communication, performance and utility. To an engineer or a scientist, it is technical matter as it is a system designed for efficient delivery of safe food products with high quality, via each and every stage of distribution chain, from production of raw material to food manufacture, packaging, retail, wholesale, consumer, disposal and finally recycling or of resource resurgence. The extent of food packaging is literally broad as it encompasses technological activities such as graphic and machinery design, package manufacture and development, shelf life testing, distribution and marketing. Food packaging science is a discipline which applies principles from four major areas of science (materials science, food science, information science and socioeconomics) to understand the properties of packaging materials, packaging requirements of foods and the packaging system. Both material science and food science have been two major contributors for food packaging development. Material science is important to understand the mechanical strength, barrier properties, appearance and physical and chemical properties of paper, glass, metal, polymer and composite. Food science is important to understand the deterioration kinetics of foods (such as microbial growth, lipid oxidation, moisture loss or gain) governs the food shelf life. Food packaging technology is a science based solutions to address specific food packaging needs; examples are tamper evident packaging, microwavable packaging, modified atmospheric packaging, and controlled atmospheric packaging which are aimed at enhancing safety, quality and convenience for the consumer.

Abstract

Biochar is the product of thermal degradation of organic materials in the absence of air (pyrolysis), and is distinguished from charcoal by its use as a soil amendment. Biochar is generally alkaline in pH and may increase soil pH with greater increase observed in sandy and loamy soils than in clayey soils. Biochar addition can increase cation exchange capacity, base saturation, exchangeable bases and organic carbon content as well as decreases in Al saturation in acid soils. Biochar enhances soil productivity by improving the physical, chemical and biological soil conditions. Improvement in soil structure increase soil water retention. A comparative study of soil fertility and leaching losses of nutrients between an Anthrosol and an adjacent unamended Ferralsols revealed that the Anthrasol had significantly higher P, Ca, Mn and Zn availability than the Ferralsol, and an increased biomass of both cowpea and rice by 38–45% without fertilization. More experimentation is needed to substantiate multiple benefits of biochar application in relevant soil-environment-climate-management factors and minimize any possible drawbacks in Indian perspective. Efficient use of biochar in agricultural system is one viable option that can enhance natural rates of carbon sequestration in the soil, reduce farm waste, enhance crop yield with concomitant improvement in soil quality.

Introduction

Soil plays a vital role in fulfilling fundamental human requirements, such as the provision of sustenance and water, while also serving as the primary medium for supporting biodiversity. The sustainability of soil in the 21st century is dependent upon not only the implementation of effective management practices by farmers, foresters, and land-planners, but also on government regulations, policies, marketing strategies, and subsidies (Mishra et al., 2017). The increasing influence of human activities on the Earth’s natural environment has led to significant global challenges concerning the interplay of planetary and public health (J. Huang et al., 2018).

Introduction 
Carbon rich solid residue named as biochar produced by heating biomass in a procedure recognized as pyrolysis. During pyrolysis, biomass, including crop and forestry residues, manure, municipal and industrial wastes, is broken down at temperatures exceeding 400°C, with minute to no oxygen present. This procedure results in the making of syngas, bio oil, and biochar. Given its high carbon content, approximately 60% to 90%, biochar addition in soil has been recommended as an effective, long-term method for capturing atmospheric CO2 within terrestrial ecosystems. In addition to its role in reducing greenhouse gas productions and carbon sequestration, biochar offers various advantages for soil quality enhancement. Incorporating biochar into soils can boost crop yields by improvising the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the soil, such as increasing water retention, adjusting soil pH, and enhancing microbial activity (Zoghlami and Paës, 2019). The production of biochar offer several benefits such as carbon sequestration in which produced biochar captures carbon that would otherwise be released into the atmosphere (Rahimi, Anand and Gautam, 2022). This helps mitigate climate change by locking carbon in a steady form for a lengthy period, reducing greenhouse gas emissions. When added to soil, biochar can enhance its physical, chemical, and biological properties. It improves water preservation, nutrient accessibility, and microbial activity, leading to increased soil fertility and crop yields (Saikia et al., 2015)perennial grass species Arundo donax L. was pyrolysed in a fixed-bed reactor and characterization was performed for the liquid and the solid products. The effect of process parameters such as temperature (350-650°C. Biochar production can utilize various types of organic waste materials, including agricultural residues, forestry waste, and certain municipal and industrial wastes. This reduces the burden on landfills and promotes waste recycling. The pyrolysis process used to create biochar can be designed to minimize emissions of harmful gases and particulates, thus contributing to air quality improvement. These byproducts can be used as sources of renewable energy, further reducing the carbon footprint. Biochar can improve soil aeration, reduce soil erosion, and help prevent nutrient leaching, which contributes to overall soil health and ecosystem stability as described in figure 9.1. It can remain in the soil for thousands of years, providing long-term carbon storage benefits. Biochar

Introduction 
The fast-changing world has put a vast amount of pressure on the energy system [1]. That has resulted in a sudden increase in global energy consumption. For several centuries fossil fuels have been the bedrock of energy generation, powering industries, households, and transportation. Apart from this mounting evidence of climate change has been characterized by rising global temperatures, extreme weather conditions and rise in the sea level are been directly linked to the emissions generated by the combustion of these fossil fuels. The harmful effect of the greenhouse gases on the environment has impacted globally. We strongly need much safer and more sustainable energy sources. In addition, the main reason behind international relations instability is often linked with the fossil fuel-dependent economies, coupled with the finite nature of such resources, which has underscored the requirement of diversifying the energy mix. Biochar an alternatives to fossil fuels emerging as carbon-rich material produced by heating biomass in anaerobic conditions this product is known as pyrolysis [2]. This substance has the potential that be derived from a variety of biomass waste streams, including animal excreta, food scraps, forestry residues municipal solid waste, and agriculture by-products. Transforming organic waste into stable, carbon-rich products, biochar offers a dual benefit that addresses waste management challenges while contributing to carbon storage. Biochar is a versatile material that has exceptional properties that make it a promising alternative for addressing various environmental and energy challenges [3]. It has unique characteristics that include high porosity, creating a network of interconnected pores that enhance its surface area and reactivity, functional groups that enables biochar to react with a wide variety of substances. The substantial surface area provides ample sites for adsorption a process where pollutants bind to the biochar surface. The material high cation exchange capacity allows it to retain essential nutrients by preventing their leaching and helping in enhancing soil fertility [4]. However, biochar has remarkable stability providing resistant degradation and persisting in the environment for extended periods, making it an effective carbon sequestration tool. The economic benefits of biochar are equally persuasive, as it can be produced from low cost readily available biomass waste thereby reducing waste disposal costs. Furthermore, the process of creating biochar is really simple and effective for the environment and contributes to the overall appeal. There are several studies have underscored biochar’s effectiveness in removing pollutants from water spills [5]. To produce biochar there are several thermochemical conversion techniques are been employed, including torrefaction, gasification, flash carbonization, pyrolysis, and hydrothermal carbonization. among this pyrolysis is the most prevalent method. This process involves biomass heating without oxygen that results in organic matter decomposition and the formation of biochar and bio-oil. Pyrolysis is done under a state of low oxygen, where the biomass is degraded the biomass type, residence time, and thermal efficiency at a given temperature, heating, and feedstock type impact the item formed in due process. The fundamental characteristics and structure of biochar also depend upon the kind of reactor used in the carbonization process [6] organic material synthesized through pyrolysis of different biomass (plant or animal waste. Currently available technologies for characterizing biochar include nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), Raman spectroscopy, Braeuer Emmett Teller (BET), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Thermos Gravimetric Analysis (TGA), and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) [7,8]. Due to its numerous benefits and used in a variety of, environmental problems like cutting greenhouse gas emissions

ABSTRACT

In the present investigation on three different plant species from pollution and control area were carried act for biochemical analysis such as total chlorophyll content, leaf extract pH, relative water content and ascorbic acid test. The results indicate accordance to order of tolerance index of plant species in air pollution are Macrosolen cochinchinensis, Loranthus parasiticus and Viscum album. The changes in pollution tolerance index are biochemically induced due to the surrounding environmental conditions. Thus, it is observed that Macrosolen cochinchinensis is highly tolerant species among the selected three species. Thus, in future this plant species may play an important role in pollution indicator. APTI analysis show the pollution tolerating decreasing order for there species can be Macrosolen cochinchinensis> Loranthus parasiticus>Viscum album and as ascorbic acid result indicate that Macrosolen cochinchinensis show mostly defence mechanism and highly tolerance level against different kind of pollutant. Besides these three hemiparasite plant species have some valuable ethnomedicinal important. In India tribal people used leaf and stem bark in curing abortion, miscarriage, vaginal bleeding during pregnancy, treat circulatory and respiratory system problems.

Postharvest losses of fruits and vegetables are even higher and are estimated to be 40-50%. Postharvest fruit rotting are a major cause of those losses and are chiefly caused by fungal pathogens after fruit ripening. In a manner similar to foliar diseases that occur in the field, several factors as fungal pathogenicity, host response and environment determine the outcome of host resistance or susceptibility. However, in postharvest diseases fruit ripening is another major component that will determine fruit resistance. The molecular trigger induces the germ tube to differentiate an appressorium. It has been shown that excess nutrients over ride it and protein synthesis is not required once germination has occurred. Protein synthesis during conidium germination and appressorium formation on cellulose membranes were observed (Pathak, 1997). A specific polypeptide (95 kDa) was synthesized only when appressoria matured (a period lasting from 12-24 h after germination). This molecule is involved in the synthesis of the melanin precursor, Scytalone.

Appressoria grown in the presence of cyclohexamide do not mature nor they subsequently differentiate a penetration peg. Appressorium maturation involves the formation of melanin. It has been shown that melanization of appressoria is necessary for formation of a successful penetration peg. The melanin appears to give the appressorium mechanical strength, but pigmentation is only one factor required for penetration competent appressoria. At restrictive temperatures, pigmentation of conidia of C. lagenarium mutants could be restored with dihydroxyphenylalanine without restoration of appressorial competence. Non-pathogenic mutants have been used to determine factors important for pathogenicity. Cutinase production was essential for penetration of papaya fruits. The cutinase produced during infection of papaya fruit by C. gloeosporioides has been purified and characterized as a glycoprotein of 24 kDa. Polyclonal antibodies raised against this enzyme do not cross react with cutinase from Fusarium so/ani, and lesions do not develop when papaya fruits are inoculated with spore suspensions containing the antibody preparation.

Introduction

Salinity is a significant environmental stress for crop plants it account for about 70% of the losses in the crop yield. It adversely affects seed germination, seedling growth and different metabolic activities in plants (Begum et al. 1997). It reduces DNA, RNA and protein synthesis and differentially influences the activities of the hydrolytic enzymes (Kumar et al. 1996).

Plants are classified as glycophytes or halophytes according to their capacity to grow on high salt medium. Most crop plants are glycophytes and cannot tolerate salt stress. High salt concentration decreases the osmotic potential of soil solution creating a water stress in plants. Secondly they cause severe ion toxicity since Na+ is not readily sequestered into vacuoles as in halophytes.

The widespread nature of saline soils compounded by the geographical distribution of man’s population and agricultural practices are largely succeeded in increasing salinization in arid and semi-arid lands. Most of the crops are sensitive to even low concentration of NaCl.

ABSTRACT

Brinjal is an important solanaceous vegetable, which holds coveted position among the different vegetables. Developing hybrids with high yield and resistance to borer would be highly beneficial. The biochemical parameters are used to study the mechanism of resistance to pests and diseases. With this aim, the biochemical constituents were estimated in five intervarietal hybrids and their parents with susceptible variety. The study on biochemical basis of resistance to shoot and fruit borer showed that among the parents of intervarietal crosses, EP 65 had the highest level of peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase and total phenol content in both shoot and fruit and it also recorded high content of solasodine next to APAU Bagmathi. Among the hybrids, the cross EP 65 x Pusa Uttam had the highest level of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase activity in both shoot and fruit and high level of total phenols and solasodine content next to EP 104 x APAU Bagmathi . The susceptible check (CO 2) registered the lowest value for all the biochemical constituents .The study revealed that the genotypes with high or moderate level of these biochemical constituents suffered less for shoot and fruit borer infestation.

The native gel electrophoretic study showed that for peroxidase enzyme, the intervarietal hybrids EP 65 x Pusa Uttam, EP 12 x MDU 1 and EP 104 x APAU Bagmathi and the susceptible variety CO 2 did not show difference in the induction of isoform (PO-1) and all were single and thick. For polyphenol oxidase (PPO), the intervarietal hybrids and the variety CO 2 showed single and strong band induction

The evaluation of genotypes based on biochemical constituents and isozyme studies revealed the superiority of the parents EP 65, APAU Bagmathi and MDU 1and the hybrids EP 65 x Pusa Uttam, EP 12 x MDU 1 and EP 104 x APAU Bagmathi. The identified hybrids with high yield and resistance to shoot and fruit borer could be exploited for commercial cultivation.

Identification of enteric bacilli is of prime importance for controlling intestinal infections. This can be achieved by preventing contamination of food and water by a group of bacteria belonging to family – Enterobacteriaceae which are found in the intestinal tract of human beings and lower mammals. The microorganisms of this family are short, gram negative, non spore forming bacilli. Such common enteric bacteria are a) pathogens such as species of Salmonella and Shigella b) occasional pathogens like species of Proteus and Klebsiella and c) normal intestinal flora like species of Escherichia and Enterobactor.

Introduction

Germplasm identification as a part of a philosophy of consumer protection extends through the entire seed trade and allied industries, from plant breeders to food consumers. Increasingly, countries are introducing schemes for Plant Breeders (or germplasm) Rights. These reward breeders financially for their efforts and offer protection for their germplasm, but in turn require that new germplasm are distinct from others and also uniform and stable in the expression of their characteristics. Since, the genetic variations in plants and plant populations are of considerable interest to have desirable traits to develop a commercial variety. Biochemical and molecular biology based data and its analysis for information regarding selection have been realized of utmost importance.

The dry matter production is maximum in cassava (3.0 m t ha^-1) and is followed by yams (2.4 m t ha^-1) and sweet potato (2.1 m t ha^-1) and are higher than rice, wheat, maize and banana (1.3 to 1.9 m t ha^-1). The energy production is maximum in yams (182 M J ha^-1 day^-1) and it is followed by sweet potato (152 M J ha^-1 day^-1) and cassava (121 M J ha^-1 day^-1) (Horton and Fano, 1985).

1. Sweet Potato

Both sweet potato roots and tops are nutritious foods which could be used to advantage in combating nutritional deficiencies in parts of the developing world if means could be found to overcome resistance to their increased consumption. The roots are used primarly as human food and are eaten boiled, steamed, fried or baked. They are not only a moderately good energy source, but also contain significant quantities of the water-soluble vitamins viz., ascorbic acid and thiamin, besides supplying part of the daily requirement for riboflavin and niacin. Their contents of pyridoxine, folic acid and pantothenic acid may be relatively high. Raw leaves and tender tips are also excellent sources of ascorbic acid and some of the B-vitamins, especially riboflavin which is deficient in many Asian diets. However, high percentages of water-soluble vitamins are lost on cooking (Woolfe, 1992).

Transforming organic materials, such as agricultural residues, food waste, or biomass, into valuable bio-based products is crucial for waste management. This process, called biochemical conversion, employs various enzymatic, microbial, or chemical reactions to break down complex organic compounds into simpler molecules like sugars, fatty acids, and amino acids. These intermediates can then be further processed into biofuels, pharmaceuticals, and other bio-derived materials, making this process promising for sustainable energy and resource management. Biochemical conversion typically includes pretreatment, enzymatic hydrolysis, fermentation, and purification. It offers a sustainable alternative to conventional fossil fuel-based production methods, reducing environmental impacts and dependence on non-renewable resources.

ABSTRACT

Astudy was undertaken at Department of Soil Science & Agrl. Chemistry, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara to standardize different amelioration techniques to prepare enriched coirpith compost. Twelve treatments were tried using different combinations of coirpith, Pleurotus spp., Schizophyllus spp., urea, rock phosphate, cowdung slurry, mushroom waste, goat manure, glyricidia and water hyacinth. The results of the various enrichment techniques revealed that the temperature in the compost in general, increased to a peak value of 47oC on the 22nd day of composting and later decreased to a stabilized value. The observed temperature of 40-50 °C found during the thermophilic stage is essential for the rapid degradation of lignocellulose, as the thermophilic microfungi and actinomycetes involved in this process thrive at that temperature. Though the pH show a hike at the initial stage of composting, it decreased and stabilized at the later stage of composting which is conducive for growth and proliferation of microbes. The treatment coirpith with Pleurotus spp., glyricidia +20% cowdung slurry and goat manure was found to be ideal for compost preparation.

Introduction

Urinalysis, the examination of normal and abnormal components of urine, is one of the most important aspect of clinical pathology that aids in accurate and timely diagnosis in veterinary practice. Urine is considered as one of the most accessible bio-fluid that can be collected using non- invasive techniques in adequate quantities. It includes the evaluation of colour, odour, turbidity, volume, pH, specific gravity, protein and glucose content, ketone bodies, blood, erythrocytes, leukocytes, epithelial cells, casts, crystal, micro-organisms, etc. Urinalysis gives us valuable information regarding the several important attributes of renal function. For example, specific gravity of urine gives valuable insights over the potential of the Henle’s loop to dilute urine and the distal convoluted tubules to concentrate urine after ruling out the extra-renal factors affecting the urine specific gravity. It is highly useful to evaluate the different types of urogenital diseases and it also provides significant information regarding several systemic disorders. It is comparatively quicker to perform and is relatively a low-cost test that could be easily done in most clinical setups.

Metabolic Processes in Bacterial Cells

All living cells are continually undergoing processes of replication, breakdown, synthesis and repair. The overall term used to describe these processes is metabolism and refers to all the different reactions that must occur in order for a cell to grow and reproduce. The pathways of metabolism are remarkably similar in all living cells. The differences that do occur usually reflect the availability of nutrients or the need for a cell to provide for a specific function. This may be secretion, storage, structural support, energy for movement, or reproduction. Our knowledge of many of the metabolic processes that occur in human cells has been derived from research on the major pathways that also occur in microbial cells.

Catabolism is the process of breakdown of complex molecules, usually with the release of energy. Anabolism refers to the synthesis of new or replacement molecules. This is an energy-requiring process. A metabolic pathway is a series of reactions in the process of metabolism.

The energy from the sun that is trapped and used to produce glucose is released when a molecule of glucose is broken down during metabolism. This complex process is called oxidation, or respiration, and consists of a number of interrelated biochemical pathways, including those of glycolysis, fermentation and aerobic respiration. Reactions that occur in the presence of oxygen are termed aerobic; those that occur in the absence of oxygen are anaerobic. Many of these reactions require the involvement of various cofactors as well as enzymes, and result in the production of energy which is captured by the synthesis of a small molecule called adenosine triphosphate (AT). ATP is termed an ‘energy-rich storage molecule’ because breakdown of ATP releases energy for use in other reactions in the cell.

ABSTRACT

Detection of disease tolerance with enhanced defense mechanism is a practical approach in crop variety improvement programme. Toxins being responsible for pathogenicity and virulence of the fungi, regenerating plants from toxin treated calli is an effective and easy approach. The response of tomato calli to the crude toxins of the foliar pathogens viz., Alternaria solani and Septoria lycopersici was studied and the changes in phenol metabolism due to toxin treatment were analysed. Crude toxins of A. solani and S. lycopersici extracted under optimum conditions were serially diluted and tomato calli were treated with different dilutions of the toxins to find out the optimum dilution at which minimum survival percentage was obtained, based on a 1-4 score. Minimum score of 1 was obtained at 1:10 dilution for A. solani and at 1:20 for S. lycopersici.

The calli of resistant (LE-625) and susceptible (CO-3) tomato varieties were treated with desired dilutions of the toxins of A. solani and S. lycopersici. Total phenolics and ortho- dihydroxy (OD) phenolics were estimated at 24 h interval to study the extent of necrosis on resistant and susceptible calli due to toxin treatment. The total and OD-phenol contents of calli of susceptible cultivar (CO-3) progressively decreased with increase in time interval consequent to the treatment of toxins of A. solani and S. lycopersici. In the resistant calli of LE-625, an initial reduction of total phenol and OD-phenol content was observed following the application of the toxins of A. solani and S. lycopersici at 24 hours after treatment. Later with lapse of time, the total phenol content and OD-phenol contents progressively increased reaching a maximum at 120 h after treatment. The results clearly indicated the enhancement of biochemical defense in the resistant calli and a fall in defense mechanism in the susceptible calli due to toxin treatment. Such techniques are useful in the preliminary screening of resistant genotypes in crops like tomato.

1. Chromatography Technique for the separation of one or more biological compounds from the mixture.

2. Chromatography - Mikhail Tswett (1906)

3. Distribution or partial coefficient is defined as the ratio of concentration of compounds in the mobile phase to that the concentration of compounds in the stationary phase.

4. Chromatography also used for the separation of the colorless compounds from a mixture.

5. Spectroscopy employs the interaction of light with matter.

6. Light is electromagnetic radiation (EMR) that exhibit discrete packets of energy is called as photons.

7. Jablonski diagram gives the electronic and vibrational state of the molecule.

8. Molecular structures responsible for the interaction with EMR are called as Chromophores.

9. Beer's law is valid for low concentrations only.

10. Prism splits incoming light into its components by refraction.

11. Grating splits the wavelengths by diffraction.

Introduction Biochemical techniques are a set of methods/tools used to analyze and study biomolecules, cellular processes of body and disease diagnosis. The techniques form the cornerstone of modern research and are applied in various fields such as medical science, forensic science, drug discovery as well as environmental studies. Briefly, such techniques are used to isolate, analyze, and manipulate biomolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates. It is therefore imperative to understand the principle of biochemical techniques for pursuing a career in biological science such as Biochemistry, molecular biology or Biochemistry. Biochemical techniques offer several uses across multiple scientific areas such as: • Medical Research: In the identification of biomarkers, diagnosis of disease conditions such as diabetes and cancer and development of therapeutic interventions. • Pharmaceutical Industry: In this biochemical

Biochemical tests are vital diagnostic tools in fish health laboratories across India, helping to accurately identify and differentiate bacterial pathogens responsible for aquatic diseases. These tests complement culture-based and morphological analyses by revealing the metabolic and enzymatic functions of bacterial isolates. Given India’s broad aquaculture landscape with varied species and environmental conditions, rapid biochemical diagnostics are crucial for effective disease control and reducing economic impact.
Indian labs, especially those near coastal regions, aquaculture ponds, and freshwater bodies, routinely use these tests to confirm bacterial species isolated from fish. After isolating colonies and performing Gram staining on samples from fish gills, fins, skin lesions, internal organs, or mucus, key colonies are subjected to standard biochemical assays. These assays examine traits like carbohydrate fermentation, enzyme production, and substrate utilization to pinpoint genus or species. Frequently encountered bacteria include Aeromonas, Vibrio, Edwardsiella, Streptococcus, Flavobacterium, and Pseudomonas.
The oxidase test detects cytochrome c oxidase; Aeromonas and Vibrio are oxidase-positive, while Edwardsiella is not. The catalase test identifies catalase enzyme production, distinguishing catalase-negative Streptococcus from other Gram-positive cocci.
The Triple Sugar Iron (TSI) agar test, widely used in Indian labs, checks glucose, lactose, and sucrose fermentation along with hydrogen sulfide (H?S) production. For example, Edwardsiella tarda from Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh produces black precipitate and ferments glucose. The indole test identifies indole production from tryptophan—many Aeromonas isolates from West Bengal and Odisha are indole-positive.

Fresh fruits are an important component of our diet since they provide essential nutrients like minerals and vitamins and are often attractive to the consumer because of their taste, texture, colour, aroma and flavour. Fruits of different species are botanically different, and they may be derived from various parts of the flower, including the pericarp, mesocarp and receptacle. Growth of fruit tissues is initiated shortly after fertilization and accompanied by the accumulation of food reserves donated by the parent plant. Fruit ripening corresponds to a number of physiological, structural and biochemical changes, which make the fruit attractive to the consumers. These changes include physical changes, viz. the changes in colour, texture, taste, aroma and flavour, and the metabolic changes such as changes in the level of enzymes and gene expression. The varieties of mechanism, which exist in different fruits to bring about a series of these changes to make them attractive for consumption, have been summarized in Table 9.1.

Because of the variety of ways in which these quality attributes are generated, there are significant differences existing in enzymes involved in ripening of different types of fruit. Once initiated, these physiological and biochemical modifications continue until the fruit is in peak condition for consumption. If the fruits are not harvested at appropriate stage of maturity, these changes continue and make them more susceptible to mechanical damage, infection and senescence. Since harvesting fruits at right stage of their maturity is critical, it is important to understand the biochemistry of fruit ripening process fully. This chapter will highlight the biochemical and metabolic changes involved during fruit ripening to make the fruit acceptable for potential consumers. Some of the possible genetic manipulations, which can be done to delay the onset of these ripening related changes, are given in later part of the chapter.

Introduction

Energy is the major source required to maintain the structure and function of all living cells. This energy is derived from oxidation of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins that is taken in the form of diet. The energy liberated from the process of oxidation is generally captured in the form of ATP, which is known as energy currency of the living cells. Each gram of carbohydrate and protein gives about 4 Kcal on oxidation, while each gram of fat gives about 9 Kcal. Oxidation means addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen from a compound or removal of electron from an ion or atom increasing its positive charge. Reduction means removal of oxygen or addition of hydrogen to a compound or addition of electron to an ion or atom decreasing its positive charge. Commonly the oxidation reactions are conjugated with reduction reactions and known as redox reactions. Redox reactions are often associated with release of energy. The redox chain constitutes chain of different compounds of increasing redox potentials between hydrogen and oxygen. The living cells depend on redox reactions for their energy requirements. The reactions start by removal of H2 from the substrate, which is then transferred to different components of redox chain, then finally to oxygen to form water. Components of redox chains have a redox potential higher than hydrogen and lower than oxygen.

Introduction

Biochemistry of blood is extremely complex. It plays vital role in maintaining homeostasis with in the body. Blood is a specialized connective tissue which is a fluid that circulates all through the body in cardio vascular system. Blood consists of 55 per cent of plasma and 45 per cent of cellular components.

Plasma: A straw coloured liquid component of blood. Understanding the chemical basis of plasma is very crucial for diagnosis and treating various conditions. The compositional breakdown of plasma can be put forth as 90-92 % of water that acts as transport medium for the remaining 8-10 % of the solutes. Solutes further can be classified as electrolytes (salts), proteins, Lipids, other nutrients and waste products.

Plasma electrolytes: These are the minerals found in the blood that are electrically charged. Their role is very crucial in lot of physiological activities like

• Maintaining the balance of fluids interior and exterior to the cells.

• Carries electrical signals all through the body

• Helps in contraction of muscles

• Regulates blood pressure

Introduction

Carbohydrates, the aldehyde/ ketone derivatives of the higher polyhydric alcohols, or compounds that yield these derivatives on hydrolysis, constitute of mainly four groups viz. monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Energy comes mostly from carbohydrates, and products of their degradation are also used for the synthesis of other substances including fatty acids, cholesterol, amino acids etc They are also components of compound lipids, conjugated proteins, and some of their derivatives can even function as medications (e.g., cardiac glycosides, etc). Disorders such as glycogen storage disorders (GSDs) and galactosemia can be brought on by an inherited lack of certain enzymes in the metabolic pathways of various carbohydrates. Diabetes mellitus is characterized by disruption of the metabolism of glucose.

In ruminants, the end products of digestion are largely volatile fatty acids viz. acetic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid and some monosaccharides. As they pass through the ruminal epithelium, they undergo different degrees of metabolism. The fate of volatile fatty acids are as follows: Acetate as precursor to Acetyl CoA (TCA cycle; fat synthesis); Propionate as precursor to glucose (glycolysis; milk lactose) and Butyrate as precursor to Acetyl CoA (TCA cycle). All the digested and absorbed monosaccharides and volatile fatty acids enter into the liver, where two mechanisms operate such as withdrawal of carbohydrates from blood (e.g. glycogenesis; glycolysis etc) and release of glucose by liver to blood (e.g. glycogenolysis; gluconeogenesis etc). In case of monogastrics, the processes of digestion/ fermentation of carbohydrates especially occur in the small intestine. The fate of absorbed glucose and metabolic conversions in the animal body mainly comprise of storage as glycogen in liver and muscle (small amount); oxidation of glucose for providing energy (via Glycolysis pathway; other alternative pathways such as Hexose Monophosphate Pathway (HMP)/ HMP Shunt and Uronic acid pathway etc) and fat synthesis as well as storage in the form of fat in adipose tissue.

Introduction

Carbohydrates are essential organic biomolecules/macromolecules composed of carbon c., hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms, typically in a 1:2:1 ratio. They are one of the four major classes of biomolecules, alongside proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates play critical roles in energy storage, structural integrity and cell signaling. Carbohydrates with an aldehyde as their functional group are called Aldoses. Those with keto as a functional group are called Ketoses.

Classification of Carbohydrates: They are broadly classified into three major groups:

1. Monosaccharides: The simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of a single sugar unit. They cannot be hydrolyzed to yield simpler forms of sugar. They can be subdivided into trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, heptoses and octoses etc., depending upon the number of carbon atoms they possess. Important monosaccharides are:

• Glycerose / Glyceraldehyde (Aldotriose): Glyceraldehyde 6-phosphate is an intermediate in Glycolysis.

• Ribose (Aldopentose): found in Nucleic acids.

• Glucose (Aldohexose): The primary energy source for cells, known as blood sugar.

• Fructose (Ketohexose): Found in fruits (fruit sugar), a major component of sucrose.

• Galactose (Aldohexose): Known as brain sugar. It is a part of lactose sugar.

Introduction

Energy metabolism is the complex process by which living organisms convert nutrients into energy for survival, growth, and reproduction. It involves a series of interconnected biochemical reactions that occur within cells.

Key Components of Energy Metabolism

• Catabolism: The breakdown of complex molecules (carbohydrates, proteins, and fats) into simpler ones, releasing energy.

• Anabolism: The synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring energy input.

• ATP: The primary energy currency of cells, used to power various cellular processes.

• Enzymes: Catalysts that facilitate metabolic reactions.

Introduction

All enzymes are proteins, except a tiny subset of catalytic RNA molecules. Most of the classical metabolic enzymes are named by adding the suffix -ase to the name of their substrates or to a descriptive term for the reactions they catalyze. For example, urease has urea as a substrate. Alcohol dehydrogenase catalyzes the removal of hydrogen from alcohols (i.e., the oxidation of alcohols). A committee of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (IUBMB maintains a classification scheme that categorizes enzymes according to the general class of organic chemical reaction that is catalyzed The six classes are Oxidoreductases, Transferases, Hydrolases, Lyases, Isomerases, and Ligases.

The integrity of their natural protein structure is necessary for their catalytic activity. Catalytic activity is typically lost when an enzyme denatures or dissociates into its constituent subunits. An enzyme’s catalytic activity is always eliminated when it is disassembled into its constituent amino acids. Thus, the catalytic activity of protein enzymes depends on their primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures. Aside from their amino acid residues, certain enzymes don’t need any other chemical groups to function. Others need a cofactor, which is an extra chemical element. Cofactors can be complex organic or metalloorganic molecules called coenzymes, or they can be one or more inorganic ions like Fe2+, Mg2+, Mn2+, or Zn2+.

Introduction

Most glands of the body deliver their secretions by means of ducts. These are called exocrine glands. There are few glands that produce chemical substance that they directly secrete into the blood stream for transmission to various target tissues. These are ductless or endocrine glands. The secretions of endocrine glands are called as hormones. Therefore, it is a chemical substance which is produced in one part of the body, enters the circulation and is carried to distant target organs and tissues to modify their structures and functions. Hormones are stimulating substances and act as body catalysts. The hormones catalyze and control diverse metabolic processes. Despite their varying actions and different specificity’s depending on the target organ, the hormones have several characteristics in common with enzymes. They act as body catalysts resembling enzymes in some aspect. They are required only in small quantities. They are not used up during the reaction. They differ from enzymes because they are produced in an organ other than that in which they ultimately perform their action. The major hormone secreting glands are as follows— Pituitary, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Adrenal, Pancreas, Ovaries and Testes. The hormones are classified into following main classes according to the chemical structures:

The synthesis of humic substances is the least understood and the most intriguing aspect of humus chemistry. This has been one of the intensely- researched subjects for a long time. Formation of humic substances takes several pathways during the decay of plant and animal remains in soil and the four important ones are shown in Fig. 8.1.

Fig. 8.1: Mechanisms for the formation of soil humic substances

The classical theory by Waksman advocated humic substances as modified lignins (Pathway 1), but a vast majority of current crop of investigators favour a mechanism involving quinones (Pathways 2 and 3). Including sugar-amine condensation pathway (Pathway 4), all the four pathways must be considered as likely mechanisms for the synthesis of humic and fulvic acids in nature. It is absolutely possible that these four pathways may operate in all soils, though not to the same extent or in the same order of importance. 

Introduction

Lipids (dietary or body reserve) serves as the major source of energy for the body at the time of carbohydrate depletion. Triacyl glycerol (TG) forms the major part of lipids alongwith phospholipids, cholesterol and fat-soluble vitamins. The different forms of lipids are utilised by the body for generation of energy in the form of ATP. In addition, it serves as the source of essential fattyacids and vitamins for different metabolic purpose.

Dietary triacylglycerols (TG) are digested by lipase group of enzymes (lingual, gastric, pancreatic and intestinal) secreted by the digestive tract into free fatty acids and 2-monoacylglycerols. The 2-monoacylglycerols are either absorbed as such or hydrolysed into glycerol and fatty acids which are then absorbed independently. The glycerol and fatty acids are distributed to different tissues through circulation and utilised in the following ways

i. Storage in fat cells of adipose tissue in the form of triacylglycerols.

ii. Oxidised in peripheral tissues for production of energy.

iii. converted to glucose in hepatic cells in the process of gluconeogenesis.

iv. Synthesis of other derived compounds like steroids and eicosanoids in gonadal and other tissues

v. Synthesis of phospholipids and cholesteryl esters.

Introduction

Lipids may be regarded as organic substances relatively insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents (chloroform, ether, benzene, ethanol and other non-polar solvents, etc.), actually or potentially related to fatty acids and utilized by living cells. Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic or amphipathic biomolecules that play crucial roles in energy storage, cell membrane structure, and signaling. Unlike carbohydrates and proteins, lipids are not defined by a specific polymer structure but rather by their solubility in non-polar solvents. Broadly lipids are classified based on their function as ‘Storage lipids’ and ‘Structural lipids’. Some of them are co-factors, hormones, electron carriers, light-absorbing pigments and hydrophobic anchors of proteins.

Fatty Acids: Fatty acids are straight aliphatic chains with a methyl group at one end and a carboxyl group (-COOH) at the other end. They are the simplest form of lipids.

• Saturated Fatty Acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms, leading to straight chains (e.g., palmitic acid).

• Unsaturated Fatty Acids contain one or more double bonds, causing kinks in the chain (e.g., oleic acid). Fatty acids containing more than one double bond (polyunsaturated fatty acids/PUFA) are found in relatively minor amounts.

Introduction

According to the body needs, minerals may be divided into 2 groups like macrominerals and microminerals. Macrominerals are required in amounts greater than 100 mg/day. They include 6 elements like calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride. Whereas microminerals are also known as trace elements and are required in amounts less than 100 mg/day. They include 10 elements like chromium, cobalt, copper, fluoride, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, zinc and silicon. Some minerals are always required since small amounts of inorganic salts are always excreted Fruits, vegetables and cereals are the chief sources of the mineral elements in the diet. Milk products supply the majority of the calcium and phosphorus in the diet.

Milk and milk products are the richest source of calcium along with beans, leafy vegetables and egg yolk. It is absorbed from upper small intestine. Absorption of calcium is active process and requires calcium binding protein present in the intestinal mucosal cells. The absorption is regulated by vitamin D, parathyroid hormone, high protein diet, pH, high dietary lactate and citrate are the factors that promotes calcium absorption. Whereas high dietary phosphate, alkalinity and impaired fat absorption are the factors that inhibits calcium absorption. Of the total body calcium, 99 % present in bones and teeth in the form of hydroxyapatite and 1 % is present in body fluids and other tissues. Calcium in bones acts as a reservoir, which helps to stabilize calcium ions in plasma and extracellular f luid Parathyroid hormone and active vitamin D stimulate osteoblasts while estrogen hormone inhibits osteoclasts.

Introduction

A pentose sugar, one or more phosphate groups, and a nitrogenous base (purine or pyrimidine) make up a nucleotide. Phosphodiester bonds, which connect the 5’-hydroxyl group of one pentose to the 3’-hydroxyl group of the next, bind nucleic acids together as polymers of nucleotides. RNA and DNA are the two different forms of nucleic acids. RNA nucleotides contain ribose, while uracil and cytosine are typical pyrimidine bases. Thymine and cytosine are common pyrimidine bases, and DNA contains 2’-deoxyribose in its nucleotides. In both RNA and DNA, adenine and guanine are the main purines. There is ample evidence to suggest that genetic information is encoded in DNA The Avery MacLeod-McCarty experiment, in particular, demonstrated how DNA obtained from one bacterial strain may infiltrate and change the cells of another strain, giving it some of the genes from the donor. The Hershey-Chase experiment demonstrated that a bacterial virus’s DNA contains the genetic instructions needed for the virus to replicate in a host cell, but not its protein coat. Watson and Crick proposed that native DNA is made up of two antiparallel chains arranged in a right-handed double helical configuration based on a compilation of numerous published data points. A-T and G-C, two complementary base pairs, are created by hydrogen bonds inside the helix. 10.5 base pairs are stacked per turn, perpendicular to the double helix’s long axis, at a distance of 3.4 Å. There are various structural configurations for DNA A- and Z-DNA are two variants of the Watson-Crick form or B-DNA The DNA molecule bends as a result of certain sequence-dependent structural differences.

Introduction

Protein metabolism is a complex and multifaceted process that plays a crucial role in the overall health and function of living organisms. At the most fundamental level, protein metabolism involves the synthesis, breakdown, and utilization of proteins, which are essential macromolecules that serve a wide range of structural, functional, and regulatory roles within the body.

The process of protein synthesis, or translation, begins with the transcription of genetic information stored in DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules. These mRNA molecules then serve as templates for the assembly of specific sequences of amino acids into polypeptide chains, which ultimately fold into the three-dimensional structures of functional proteins. This highly regulated process is essential for the production of the diverse array of proteins required for cellular processes, tissue repair, immune function, and numerous other physiological activities. In contrast, protein degradation, or catabolism, refers to the breakdown of proteins into their constituent amino acids. This process is mediated by various proteolytic enzymes, such as endopeptidases, exopeptidases, and dipeptidases, which cleave the peptide bonds that hold the amino acid residues together Protein degradation serves important functions, such as the recycling of amino acids for energy production or the synthesis of new proteins, the removal of damaged or misfolded proteins, and the regulation of cellular signaling pathways.

Introduction

Proteins are complex biomolecules composed of amino acids, playing crucial roles in virtually all biological processes. They serve as enzymes, hormones, structural components, signaling molecules etc.

Structure/ Levels of Organization of Proteins

Generally, Proteins are polymers of L-alpha amino acids, linked by peptide bonds. The sequence and structure of these amino acids determine the protein’s function. Protein structure is hierarchically organized into four levels:

1. Primary Structure

• The linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain, determined by the genetic code.

2. Secondary Structure

• Local folding of the polypeptide chain into structures such as α-helices and β-pleated sheets, stabilized by hydrogen bonds.

Introduction

Human and animal body comprises of various tissues that are the functional unit of organ functioning and coordination. The tissues are further consisting of well differentiated cells that makes the tissue to behave in a special way for a particular purpose. The animal tissues are divided into epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous tissues. Epithelial tissues form the protective covering and inner lining of the body and organs. Connective tissues develop from the mesodermal cells of the embryo. they support and bind other tissues in the body. The muscular tissue develops from the mesoderm of the embryo and meant for movement and locomotion. Nervous tissue makes up the peripheral and the central nervous system and is responsible for initiation and transmission the nerve impulse. The tissues are biochemically composed of water, lipid, protein, ash, and carbohydrate along with other mineral and vitamins that are needed for its basic functioning. The extracellular matrix (ECM) forms a major component of connective tissue that forms layer and surrounds the cells or tissues meant for protection, signalling and communication. The protein component of ECM basically includes collagen, elastin, keratins, fibrillin, fibronectin, laminin and proteoglycans. Collagen is the major protein component of connective tissue that provides tensile strength, shape and fixes the organ in its position. Collagen is not homogenous rather consists of around 19 different types of proteins. There are around 30 variants of protein found in collagen. collagens type I and type II are respectively found in skin and bone. Collagen is triple helical polymer of highly elongated fibrils consisting of around 1000 amino acids majority of which consists of glycine along with proline and hydroxyproline. The forces like hydrogen bonds, covalent bonds, electrostatic, hydrophobic, and van der Waals are responsible for stabilizing the structure of collagen.

Introduction

Vitamins are the organic derived accessory food factors apart from carbohydrate, lipid and proteins meant for specific biological functions, optimum growth and health of an organism. These factors are are required in minute amount in the diet for proper functioning of biological enzymes. The term accessory factors were given by Hopkins to the essential nutrients present in the natural foods. Funk (1913) coined the term vitamine to the active principal present in rice polishings. Vitamins are classified into two categories like fat soluble A and water-soluble b Vitamins A, D, E, K are fat soluble whereas Vitamins B and C are water soluble. The B group of vitamins include vitamin B1, B2, B6, biotin folic acid, B12 etcall the fat-soluble vitamins are isoprenoid in nature consisting of repeating isoprenoid units. And meant for diversified functions. The water-soluble vitamins are heterogenous group of compounds generally not stored in the body and readily excreted in urine. These are mostly act as coenzymes for the vital biological enzymes deficiency of which reflects in the form of various deceases.

Vitamin A, include retinoid group of compounds like retinol, retinal and retinoic acid Retinol is a primary alcohol containing β-ionone ring with isoprenoid units, double bonds and hydroxyl group. Naturally it exists as ester of long chain fatty acids. Retinal is the aldehyde form whereas Retinoic acid is the acid form. Carotene is provitamin A normally found in plant origin foods that in the intestine gives rise to two moles of retinal by enzyme carotene 15-15-dioxygenase. Diet contains retinol esters and p-carotene. Retinol esters are hydrolyzed into fatty acids and retinol that absorbed into intestinal mucosal cells. p-carotene Is absorbed and converted into retinal by p-carotene dioxygenase. Retinal then converted into retinol. In the intestinal mucosal cells, retinol re-esterifies with fatty acid to form retinol ester.

Bioclimatology examines relationships between climate and living organisms, including crops, livestock and humans. It draws on biology, ecology, meteorology, architecture and physiology to explain how temperature, humidity, radiation and wind influence development, comfort, health and productivity. This chapter introduces bioclimatic indices such as the Temperature-Humidity Index, Humidex, wind chill and thermal-comfort measures. Agricultural applications include crop and livestock suitability, heat-stress assessment, housing design, work planning and development of resilient farming systems. Understanding biological responses to climatic conditions supports appropriate management interventions and helps protect productivity and welfare. Bioclimatic analysis therefore connects atmospheric conditions with practical decisions involving plants, animals and people.

15.1 Introduction

Color of food is the most sensitive part of any commodity as it is the one of the organoleptic characteristic to be noticed and one of the main ways of visually assessing a food before it is consumed. The people associate certain colors with certain flavors and the color of food can influence the perceived flavor in anything from confectionary to beverages. For this reason, food manufacturers add dyes to their products. Sometimes the aim is to simulate a color that is perceived by the consumer as natural, such as adding red coloring to glace cherries, but sometimes it is for effect, like the green ketchup that was launched by Heinz in 2000. If the flavor of a food product is inconsistent with the color, the flavor can often be perceived incorrectly, for example an orange flavored drink colored green could be perceived to taste of lime. In addition, the color of a food substance is important indicator of its freshness. While all of us are aware that food with bright or unnatural colors likely contains food coloring but only few people know that natural foods such as oranges and salmon are sometimes also dyed to mask natural variations in color. The color variation in foods throughout the seasons and the effects of processing and storage often make color addition commercially advantageous to maintain the color expected or preferred by the consumer. Some of the primary reasons include:

For many soil borne diseases, effective and economic control methods are not available. Several soil borne pathogens have developed resistance to many fungicides. The beneficial microbes are also affected by fungicides. Many fungicides pose health hazards by polluting food and water and cause direct toxicity of heavy metals and carcinogenic risk. In the context of growing worldwide awareness of environmental pollution and development of fungicide resistant strains of pathogens, biological method of suppression of disease causing organisms have been recognized as the safest approach for plant disease management.

Biological control of plant diseases is the suppression of populations of plant pathogens by living organisms. Amongst beneficial microorganisms, isolates can be selected which are highly effective against pathogens and can be multiplied on artificial media. Application of such selected and mass produced antagonists in high densities once or several times during a growing season is called “augmentative biological control”.

Bioconversion refers to the recycling and reprocessing of organic waste materials using the system of biological decomposition or biodegradation into value added products. Composting is one way of conversion of organic waste into manures. It is defined as a method of solid waste management whereby the organic component of the solid waste stream is biologically decomposed under controlled conditions to a state in which it can be handled, stored or applied to the land without adversely affecting the environment.

Composting provides a partial solution to an issue of great concern in many communities. All around the world, landfills are filling up, garbage incineration is becoming increasingly unpopular, and other waste disposal options are becoming ever harder to find. Composting provides a way not only of reducing the amount of waste that needs to be disposed of, but also of converting it into a product that is useful for agriculture. Composting reduces waste, makes us less dependent on landfills, and decreases greenhouse gas emissions. Composting recycles essential nutrients back into the soil and promotes a prolific soil ecosystem.

Abstract

With increasing population and subsequent human requirements; the generation of municipal solid waste (MSW) has increased all over the world. In India, the safe disposal of the municipal solid waste still remaines a problem for the authorities concerned. Depending upon the nature and type of the MSW, there are physical and chemical methods for the disposal of the waste, but these methods have their own limitations. Those limitations may be overcome by biological methods. Higher number of microorganisms are present in MSW which may either be pathogenic or nonpathogenic. These microorganisms may play a vital role in bioconversion of MSW into compost. The compost thus produced is useful in increasing soil fertility and reducing the concentration of the waste.

Introduction

More than a third is covered by drylands in the terrestrial land surface, which have a harsh and vulnerable natural condition (Maier et al., 2014). Due to insufficient water availability, dry areas have a scant population of vascular plants, as well as poor availability of the nutrient turnover with poor availability of the resources as a result of severe temperatures (Adeel, 2008). Biological soil crusts or Biocrusts commonly protects the soil surface in dry environments and it is considered “ecosystem engineers” of arid and semiarid areas, as well as signs of ecosystem health (Briggs and Morgan, 2011; Bowker et al., 2008). They are connected in dryland ecosystem restoration level or degradation (Assouline et al., 2015). When compared to chemical or physical crusts, biocrust is the largest word that explicitly implies that these are the crusts which are dependent on the living organisms’ activity.

Abstract

Cultural knowledge on food and beverages is as old as human civilization. However, the traditional knowledge related to food habits and ecosystem conservation has been found to be unique in each cultural and ethnic group across the world. From time immemorial, the Nyishi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh has developed an unique set of traditional knowledge that allows the better utilization of food bioresources of their natural surrounding to sustain their livelihood. Historically, such knowledge was transmited through customary laws, folklore, and oral literature. Literature studies have revealed the lack of scientific investigation on ethnobiology of traditional food bioresources used by the Nyishi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. Hence, in the present investigation, an attempt has been made to unveil the hidden age-old cultural food and beverage knowledge practised among the Nyishi of Papum Pare and Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh. A total of 63 plant and 41 animal species have been reported during field survey in 4 circles covering a total of 12 different localities which includes rural, semi-urbans and urban type ecosystem in the 2 selected districts.

Abstract

Mahua (Madhuca spp.) is an important tree in India, with high socio-economic, environmental and spiritual values. We carried out this study among the local communities of Azamgarh district (eastern Uttar Pradesh) and with the Gond and Baiga tribes from Raisen and Dindori districts, Madhya Pradesh. Among the five mahua species found in Indian subcontinent, Madhuca latifolia is widely distributed in the north and central plains, the focal area of our study. Mahua has been vital to the survival of these communities, particularly the Gond and Baiga tribes, from the time immemorial. It has been a major source of food energy in the form of sugar, seed oil and alcohol. As well, different parts of the tree are used as ethnomedicine. The tribal people’s high regard for mahua is reflected by its sustainable and regulated use. In this study, we present an in-depth analysis of conservation, management and sustainable use of mahua, and also suggest its role in socio-economic adaptation, with particular reference to climate change.

The growing concern over the environmental impact of traditional packaging has led to increased interest in biodegradable and edible packaging solutions. These innovative approaches offer sustainable alternatives to conventional materials like plastic, which can persist in the environment for hundreds of years. Biodegradable packaging decomposes naturally, reducing pollution and landfill waste, while edible packaging provides an additional layer of sustainability by allowing consumers to eat the packaging along with the food) These solutions not only address waste management issues but also respond to changing consumer preferences for environmentally friendly products. This chapter explores the importance of sustainable packaging, the different types of biodegradable and edible materials available, and the challenges and future potential of these eco-friendly options.

Pesticides are the chemical substances that kill pests and herbicides are the chemicals that kill weeds. In the context of soil, pests are fungi, bacteria, insects, worms, and nematodes etc. that cause damage to field crops. Thus, in broad sense pesticides are insecticides, fungicides, bactericides, herbicides and nematicides that are used to control or inhibit plant diseases and insect pests. Although wide-scale application of pesticides and herbicides is an essential part of augmenting crop yields; excessive use of these chemicals leads to the microbial imbalance, environmental pollution and health hazards. An ideal pesticide should have the ability to destroy target pest quickly and should be able to degrade nontoxic substances as quickly as possible.

The ultimate “sink” of the pesticides applied in agriculture is soil. Soil being the storehouse of multitudes of microbes, in quantity and quality, receives the chemicals in various forms and acts as a scavenger of harmful substances. The efficiency and the competence to handle the chemicals vary with the soil and its physical, chemical and biological characteristics.

Abstract

Various cropping systems and ecologies illustrate the positive use of chemicals both as fertilizers and pesticides and organic/biological sources within the frame work of Integrated Plant Nutrition and Plant Protection System (IPPS). While considering the organic/biological sources, green manures seem to be the best alternative that may largely suffice to the organic matter requirements of the soil under crop cultivation. Green manuring can be defined as a practice of ploughing or turning into the soil undecomposed green plant tissues for the purpose of improving physical structure as well as fertility of the soil. “Green manure” refers to fresh plant matter, which is added to the soil largely for supplying the nutrients contained in its biomass. The agricultural practices consisting of growing and ploughing under a green crop or addition of a green organic matter in the form of leaves and other succulent parts from outside to improve soil productivity is known as green manuring. In this review, advantages of green manuring, decomposition of green manure,   process of decomposition, factors affecting decomposition and effects of green manuring have been discussed in detail.

8.1 Introduction

Rising petroleum prices, increasing threat to the environment from exhaust emissions and global warming have generated an intense international interest in developing alternative non-petroleum fuels for engines. The use of vegetable oil in internal combustion engines is not a recent innovation. Rudolf Diesel (18581913), creator of the diesel cycle engines, used peanut vegetable oil to demonstrate its invention in Paris in 1900. In 1912, Diesel said, “The use of vegetable oils as engine fuel may seem negligible today. Nevertheless, such oils may become, in the passing years, as important as oil and coal tar presently.” Nowadays, it is known that oil is a finite resource and that its price tends to increase exponentially, as its reserves have being decreasing¹.

India ranks sixth in the world in total energy consumption and needs to accelerate the development of the sector to meet its growth aspirations. The country, though rich in coal and abundantly endowed with renewable energy in the form of solar, wind, hydro and bio-energy has very small hydrocarbon reserves (0.4 % of the world’s reserve). India, like many other developing countries, is a net importer of energy, more than 25 percent of primary energy needs being met through imports mainly in the form of crude oil and natural gas. The rising oil import bill has been the focus of serious concerns due to the pressure it has placed on scarce foreign exchange resources and is also largely responsible for energy supply shortages. The sub-optimal consumption of commercial energy adversely affects the productive sectors, which in turn hampers economic growth².