eChapters

(I)  Slaughter and Preservation of Swine

Clean meat production from animals has been a difficult task since ancient times. Now it has become easier due to the joint efforts of Veterinarians and progressive animal owners. For clean meat production, with healthy animals, it is essential that care is given to their better management, better breeds, good ration and arrangements for preventing diseases are made. Meat from diseased animals is of inferior quality and unfit for human consumption.

            Meat is a very useful edible material, which is used for its high nutritive value with a good taste. Due to these nutritive elements, many microorganisms come in contact with the meat and they may contaminate it and change its natural structure and composition. As a result it produces many types of toxic and bad odour substances.

            Meat has an important place amongst human foods. Meat has many pecularities for which it is used in many parts of the world and by people of different religions. Many people prefer meat because of its better taste and/or odour. Often, it is observed that people consuming meat do not prefer vegetarian foods. The active consumer always gives more importance to the nutritive elements in meat. And at the time of bying meat, they prefer taking complete meat.  Allmost in all countries of the world, few selected and common animal species are slaughtered for meat production.

1. INTRODUCTION

Indian population is estimated to increase to about 1400 million by 2025. Consequently, India’s requirements for food grains and other food products to feed the increasing population will continue to rise. The food grain requirements are estimated at 350 to 370 million tonnes by 2025. The demand pattern for agricultural commodities for the domestic market will also shift as a result of increasing incomes and faster urbanization. Compared to 26% increase in 1991, the urban population is projected to increase by 42% in 2020. For competing in the global market, the product pattern will shift to high value commodities like fruits, vegetables, floriculture, dairy products, meat and marine products. In such a future scenario, it is necessary to increase agricultural production through improved cropping system, judicious use of agro-inputs and wide use of modern agricultural technology. It is also important to augment and streamline the existing marketing system including handling, transportation, storage, processing and distribution.

Pathogenesis: Role of enzymes

The chain of metabolic events that bring about the disease is pathogenesis. It involves the virulence of the pathogen, susceptibility of the plant and impact of the environment. It is called disease triangle. Penetration infection, invasion, colonization and reproduction are the events that occur during pathogenesis, and lead to development of disease.

The establishment of pathogen in the host and consequent development of disease involves a chemical interaction between the host and the pathogen. The pathogen employs offensive chemical weapons to break host barriers, which the host resists with all its might. Parasitism and disease resistance run parallel and are inseparable, A biochemical ‘tug of war’ ensures between the host and the pathogen, in which one tries to outwit the other. Enzyme, toxins and growth regulators are the important chemical weapons of the pathogen. Viruses, however, because of their basic nature, do not produce any of these chemicals.

Pathogens produce these substances either in normal course of their activities (constitutively) or when, they grow on certain substrates such as their host plants (Inducible). Plant pathogenic enzymes disintegrate the structural components of host cells, breakdown inert food materials in the cell, or affect components of the protoplast directly and interfare with its functioning system. Toxins seem to act directly on protoplast component and interfare with the permeability of its membrane and with its function. Growth regulators exert a hormonal effect on the cells and either increase or decrease their ability to divide and enlarge. Polysaccharides seem to play a role only in the vascular diseases, in which they passively interfere with the translocation of water in the plants or they may also be toxic.

Most of ultrasound machines are designed for imaging with a particular resolution linear and convex transducers. These machines can be used for general purpose for abdominal, obstetrics, gynecological, small parts, urology and cardiac applications. Most of the machines have standard measurement software viz. distance, area, volume, circumference, and obstetrical gestational age measurement for BPD, HC, AC, FL, GS, CRL, AD and FW.

Assessment of probes: One should examine the probe whether it is linear array or curved (convex) array. The probe should also be checked for its frequency. These days multi-frequency probes are supplied with the ultrasound-machine. These multiple frequencies could be 2.0 to 5.0 MHz with centrally fixed frequency of 3.5 MHz. The frequencies could be 4.0 to 7.0 (5.0 MHz setting), 5.0 to 9.0 MHz (7.5 MHz setting). The area and depth covered by various frequencies should be known.

Before setting the ultrasound machine, one should make sure of all the auxiliary devices for the machines. These are Thermal video printer, Ultrasound gel, Biopsy needle, image saving devices (USB device or internal saving mechanism), wire, Uninterrupted Power Supply etc.

Identifying and knowing the main system: One should note down the name and model of ultrasound machine as these are quoted in all the documents published with the ultrascan images generated on that particular machine. It is written on one side of front panel. On the front panel, there are various knobs for proper setting. One should locate the auxiliary power switch of the machine to begin with. Generally, there is power indicator on the machine that shows light on when power button is pushed to on position. The auxiliary power switch may also have indications of its ON and OFF positions, may be marked with 0 and 1 or other symbols. As shown in the figure below, there are various operating buttons on the operating panel. These might vary from Machine to Machine.

Introduction

Soil health and fertility are pivotal to the success and sustainability of agricultural systems. The condition of soil directly influences plant growth, crop yield, and overall farm productivity. A focus on soil health encompasses not just the physical and chemical properties of soil but also its biological vitality, which includes the diverse community of microorganisms, fungi, and fauna that interact within the soil ecosystem. Biodynamic farming, founded by Rudolf Steiner in the early 20th century, offers a distinctive approach to soil health and fertility, integrating organic principles with a holistic view of agriculture that encompasses cosmic and spiritual dimensions. Biodynamic farming is an agricultural philosophy that extends beyond conventional organic practices. It views the farm as a living organism, where soil, plants, animals, and cosmic forces are interconnected and interdependent. This perspective emphasizes that the health of the soil is intrinsically linked to the broader ecological and cosmic environment. According to biodynamic principles, soil fertility is not merely a function of nutrient inputs but a reflection of the overall balance and vitality of the farm ecosystem.

Collection and conservation of genetic resources in horticultural crops is very much essential in regions where local seed sources are still used in genetic enhancement and cultivar production. Domesticated crops grow well adapted to both tropical and temperate regions. In particular, if the crop is domesticated over centuries to be grown in different latitudes, the genetic diversity estimates are essential for a breeder to develop location specific cultivars. Genetic ulnerability, erosion and extinction of some wild progenitors and species has been altered, warranting the need for ex situ conservation measures. The material is conserved in various forms, ranging from botanical gardens, clonal and seed populations, vegetative methods, in vitro active repositories, pollen cryobanks and DNA banks. The objective, in genetic resource context, is to conserve for prolonged duration with minimal loss of viability and genetic diversity. Most ex situ conservation methods are technology dependent. Seed and pollen banks are dependent in refrigeration technology and cryogenic technology.
The conservation of plant genetic resources in ornamental species is generally driven by demand, focusing on preserving a wide range of genetic diversity. This diversity can include individual genes and coadapted gene complexes at the micro level, as well as entire genotypes, elite clones, and plant populationsat the macro level. The distribution of genetic diversity (GD) in plant species  is predominantly dependent on the reproductive mechanisms they adopt and the mode of inheritance of the characters targeted for collection. The main reasons for collection and conservation genetic resources of an ornamental species gene pool in a given ecosystem are:

Cosmos is a flowering plant belongs to family Asteraceae. Cosmos bipinnatus is ornamentally important species grown for garden display. The word cosmos is derived from the Greek word “kosmos”, which means a balanced universe or order, harmony and often referred to as Mexican Aster. The species name is from the Latin “bipinnatus” meaning “twice-pinnate” The botanical epithet is from the Latin “pinnatus” meaning “with leaflets arranged in opposite pairs”. Cosmos flowers are produced in a capitulum. Modern varieties come with single or double flowers, picotee edges, and even furled petals in the variety Seashells. Ornamental uses of cosmos include cut flowers and as border annual in the gardens. It is a very popular flower for summer bedding. Cosmos has a pleasant aroma and attracts butterflies to the garden. Essential oil extracted from leaves of cosmos. The major constituent of C. bipinnatus contained 15-17% beta-elemene, 15-17% beta-caryophyllene, 10-21% germacrene D and 12-15% bicyclogermacrene (Menut et al., 2000).

ABSTRACT

Tamarind, an economically important multipurpose tropical tree, is a species of choice for sustainable development of wasteland due to its hardy nature and adaptability to various agroclimatic conditions. However, there are very few reports on in vitro regeneration of tamarind. In an attempt to induce caulogenic response, effect of different cytokinins on nodal explants from mature trees was tested. The study extended to seedling explants, revealed that 6-Benzylaminopurine (0.08 - 44.39μM) and Zeatin (0.09 - 9.12μM) induced multiple shoots with callusing at the base of explant. Kinetin (0.09 - 9.29μM) and 6-γ,γ- dimethylallylaminopurine (2iP) (0.09-9.84μM) remained ineffective for multiplication of shoots and callusing was noted at the cut end of explant in contact of medium. Thidiazuron (TDZ) (0.09- 9.08μM) failed to induce morphogenic response and triggered dedifferentiation in the basal cut end. This led to profuse callusing in the explant and restricted morphogenesis. To avoid wound in the explant, tamarind seeds were cultured in medium containing TDZ.

Seedlings were germinated in medium with or without Thidiazuron (4.54, 9.08, 13.12, 18.16μM). Differentiation of the apical meristem to shoot was restricted and proliferation of the cotyledonary node meristem was triggered. Large number of meristematic buds appeared in a radial pattern around the node. The meristematic activity subsequently spread towards the cotyledonary bridge and also in the proximal part of the hypocotyl. These buds differentiated to form shoot primordia and subsequently to shoots in medium devoid of growth regulator. Plants developed by micrografting of these shoots on seedling derived rootstocks, survived in soil.

Chi-Square

The Chi-square test (c₂) proposed by Karl Pearson in 1899 is used to measure goodness of fit of observed and theoretical or expected data and is a continuous distribution.

Formula for Chi-Square

1. General Formula

The general formula for Chi-square is as follows

In soil culture, also known as in-ground culture, crops are raised on level ground as well as in raised beds. Soil culture is more often used in growing vegetables (e.g., tomatoes, lettuce, cucumbers, and peppers) rather than ornamental crops such as herbs, roses, freesia, and foliage plants as well as popular with smaller commercial and organic growers. The soil should be well drained, fertile, have a medium to light texture and be high in organic matter. The soil in a greenhouse should be worked as deeply as possible to break any existing hardpans or those that may have developed because of repeated traffic over the area. Fumigation or pasteurization of the soil is a must before each crop or at least once a year. This will help to destroy disease, nematodes and weeds. If soil is steamed, hold it at 180 degrees F (82°C) for 4 hours. Production techniques used in soil culture are similar to intensive crop production methods used in the field. Although soil is readily available at most places where a greenhouse is located most commercial growers, no longer rely on soil culture in the greenhouse as they did ealier. Some of the reasons include insect and disease pressures and costly fumigation.

Sweet potato Ipomea batatas(L). Lam. is an asexually propagated vegetable. It is grown in most of the tropical and subtropical region of the earth. In USA production extended to temperate regions. Vines as well as roots are eaten or fed to live stock. It is the source of industrial starch and potential source of the alcohol. Among the major tuber crops cultivated in India sweet potato rank third after potato and cassava in area and production.

Origin: Available evidence suggests South Mexico through Central America and Northern South America as the probable center of origin. It is perennial but handled as annual. Its hardiness and drought tolerance are well recognized.

Family: Convolvulaceae, Chromosome number: 2n=90

It is the only known natural hexaploid morning glory. Most of the wild species are diploid (2n=30). Hybridization is restricted with in species because of its hexaploidy nature. Extensive variability with in species is observed. Tuber is the fleshy subterranean stem or shoot but in sweet potato tuber is a root, and hence it cannot be a tuber (common error). It is a perennial, and the storage root is capable of continued enlargement and does not mature in the sense of reaching some final size or stage of development. From the stand point of function, the root system consists of absorbing roots and fleshy storage roots.

Introduction

The livestock enterprise is complementary to crop production providing a balance and protective program of farming. Farming that combine’s crop production with livestock rearing is called mixed farming. If cow, buffalo. Poultry, piggery, sheep, goat etc. has more than 10 % contribution to grow gross income of farm is called Diversified type of farming.

Mutagenesis is the process whereby sudden heritable changes occur in the genetic information of an organism not caused by genetic segregation or genetic recombination, but induced by chemical, physical or biological agents.

Mutations were first identified by Hugo de Vries in the late nineteenth century, while experimenting on the ‘rediscovery’ of Mendel’s laws of inheritance. He coined the term ‘mutation’. Radiation-induced mutations as a tool for generating novel genetic variability in plants, advanced as a field after the discovery of the mutagenic action of X-rays demonstrated in maize, barley and wheat by Stadler. The discovery of X-rays by Rontgen in 1895 led to the application of X-rays for inducing mutations in fruit fly by Muller (1927). Mutation is of two types

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the vital cereal crop, probably the oldest cultivated grain crop, produced under varied ecosystems is consumed as the primary source of food by the billions of people throughout the world covering 9% of total arable land among world. India is one of the top leading countries in the entire world in case of both production and consumption of rice. Rice is cultivated in 43.86 m ha geographical area of the country producing 115.6 million tons (2018- 2019) of rice. It is produced in various ecosystems throughout the country under diverse climatic and soil condition but the productivity is much lower as compared to other countries. According to Pandey et al. (2006), the average loss of rice production during drought years in major rainfed rice grown states like Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Odisha was found to be 30 percent of the annual production in case of non-drought years.

Aplant collector and conservationist faces many problems. These include adverse weather, limited availability of personnel, insufficient material because of poor growing season, general scarcity of the plant in the target region, grazing of the plant by animals, damage by pests or diseases or immaturity of the material. These problems are common to both seeds and vegetative propagules. The vegetatively propagated plant material face another unique problem related to excessive weight and bulk. The cost and inconvenience of transporting large amounts of material can be a limitation on the scope of a plant exploration mission. There is additional need to maintain selected clones in a disease-free condition for distribution to national programmes.

Nutrient supply is one of the major inputs for agricultural crop production in a sustainable manner. The factor productivity of inputs especially the fertilizers in agriculture was found to be in a declining phase during the last four decades. This had a detrimental effect on annual compound growth rate of major crops as wells on soil quality. The current status of nutrient use efficiency in different cropping system is low in case of major macro nutrients likes Nitrogen (30-50%) and Phosphorus (15-20%). Because 50-70% of the nitrogen applied using conventional fertilizers, with particle size dimensions greater than 100 nm, is lost to the soil due to leaching, nutrient utilization efficiency (NUE) by plants is low. Attempts to increase the NUE in conventional fertilizer formulations have thus far resulted in little success. On the other hand, the emerging nano strategies indicate that, due to the high surface area to volume ratio, nano fertilizers are expected to be far more effective than even polymer-coated conventional slow-release fertilizers. In this context, nanotechnology offers an important role in improving the nutrient use efficiency of agricultural systems.

Genus : Ficus 
Species : carica L.
Family : Moraceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 26

Fig along with fruits like date palm, grape (vinifera) and olive was regarded as an important food crop of the ancient civilization that developed in the Mediterranean region. The fig description occurred prominently in number of songs as well as in the mythological and historical events that took place at that time. Fig is thought to be native of southern parts of Arabian peninsula, Italy, Balkan and USSR region. Fig was in cultivation as early as 300 BC and from Arabian peninsula it spread to Turkey, Syria, Iraq and later to many subtropical parts of the western hemisphere.

Feed accounts for a major portion of farm expenses in livestock and poultry production. Thus, to obtain maximum profitability, it must be ensured that the feed should not only be well balanced nutritionally but economical too. Rising prices of feeds certainly have reduced the profitable nature of broiler farming. For better utilization of feed and to improve feed efficiency, antibiotics were used at sub-therapeutic levels in the animal ration.

Development of antibacterials progressed very quickly and as a result, certain new antibacterial substances were discovered and developed for use as growth promoting agents in livestock and poultry. The antibiotics act by reducing nutrient destruction in the intestine, increasing microbial synthesis of certain vitamins and amino acids, reducing the rate of passage of nutrients in the gastrointestinal tract and reducing the thickness of the intestinal wall. This thinner wall and reduced rate of passage have been suggested as factors favoring efficient absorption of nutrients. It is also reported that the antibiotics also inhibit the bacterial production of ammonia and other harmful nitrogenous compounds such as trimethylamine that reduce the growth of chickens.

Introduction

Mithun is to be originated before more than 3000 years ago. Mithuns are found over a large area of southest Asia. This animal’s natural habitat is in the forests of highlands. In addition to meat production, Mithuns are used for sacrificial purposes and also for barter trade. Even today, Mithun is used as a holy sacrificial animal to appease the god by the tribe people. Mithun is a unique bovine species which are situated at limited geographical distribution. It is mainly found in the tropical rain forests of North Eastern hilly states of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram of India. Mithun is also known as “Cattle of Mountain”. In Indian subcontinents, Mithun is also known as “Gayal” (Bos frontalis). In Myanmar and Bhutan, it is called Mithun, whereas in China, it is called Dulong cattle.

Mithun is a magnificent massive bovine and is presently reared under free range condition in the hill forests at an altitude of 1000 to 3000 m above mean sea level. Mithun plays an important role in the socio-economic and cultural life of the local tribal population. Presently, this animal is mainly reared for meat, which is considered to be more tender and superior over the meat of any other species. Although, Mithun produce less quantity of milk and can be used for preparation of various milk products. Leather obtained from this species has been found to be superior to cattle.

The massive unique beautiful animal is anatomically a physiologically well adapted to high altitude. Mithun is a social animal; they establish small groups usually containing an adult male and several female and juveniles. It is a potential source of delicious meat, and it can also be used for improvement of local, native cattle breeds. Mithun hide has almost three times the size and thickness that of native cattle.

Entrepreneurship involves seeking and exploiting opportunities available for the benefit of the society. The changing agro-economic conditions in our country have offered a prospective context for developing entrepreneurship in agri-business in the country. Agri-entrepreneurship has the prospect of social and economic development, for example, employment generation, poverty reduction, improvements in nutrition, health and overall food security in the national economy especially in rural areas. The task of promoting entrepreneurship was earlier given to different departments and government agencies. In 2014, the Prime Minister decided to dedicate an entire ministry to build this sector as he felt that skill development required greater push from the government’s side. The idea is to reach maximum people and startups through funding and skill development initiatives.