eChapters

1. TROPICAL FRUITS

1.1. Common name, botanical name and family

Human wellness is the psychological well-being of human beings. The behavioral skills of human beings are concerned with human wellness. The main purpose is to make life more comfortable and to help people be happier, healthier, and effective. So, the concept of human wellness has acquired significance in the field of positive psychology in this current era when people are suffering from strains and stress.

Ever since more attention has been paid to the quality of life, the concept of human wellness has become more popular. However, less importance has been given to the conceptual development of the theory behind it, thus creating confusion between terms like psychological well-being, subjective wellness, quality of life, satisfaction, happiness, and mental health.

Quality of life and life satisfaction are measures of an individual’s perceived level of human wellness and happiness. It is sometimes used as a synonym for subjective or general well-being. Human wellness is related to the psychological well-being of an individual. The latter is concerned with the mental and emotional health of a man. Psychological well-being may be stated as the general feelings of enjoyment, happiness, contentment, job satisfaction, and one’s role in the workplace, a sense of achievement, belongingness, as well as the is no distress, dissatisfaction, or worry, etc.

Geranium (Pelargonium spp.) belongs to the family Geraniaceae. The name Pelargonium was introduced by Johannes Burman a Dutch Botanist in 1738, from the Greek word “Pelargos” means stork because the seed head looks like a stork’s beak.  Due to their long and beak-shaped fruits, they are also known by the name of cranesbills. Geraniums are popular flowering plants and grown as decorative pot plants for indoor and outdoor. There is a world demand for the rose geranium essential oil of Pelargonium species which contains geraniol, linalool and citronellol, substitutes for the expensive attar of roses in the perfume trade. Pelargonium species was known for their medicinal value by the earliest indigenous people (Swanepoel, 2009).

1.1    General Introduction, History, Ownership of Tangible and Intellectual Property
    
1.2    Patentable Subject Matter
    
1.3    Basic Requirements of Patentability
    
1.4    Novelty, Public Domain, Obviousness and Non Obviousness
    
1.5    Inventive Step (Non-Obviousness) and Industrial Application

Maize (Zea mays L., 2n=20) is a cereal crop that is grown widely in more than 165 countries in a range of agro-ecological environments. Even in Asia, the rapid increase in maize acreage in the last decade is an indication that it is winning the battle as compared with rice. The Asian region will see itself as a major global player in the near term. In the past it was mainly confined to food in India and many other countries however, now it has become the industrial crop. Maize has several industrial applications and more than 1000 products are being developed from maize in India and around 3500 products in USA and other countries. It is a raw material for many of the important industries viz. pharma, textile, paper, film, tyre food, processing, packing and biofuel, etc. The growth rate of poultry, livestock, fish, wet and dry milling industries are very high therefore, maize demand will continue to increase in year to come.

Global Maize Scenario

Globally, maize is primarily used as feed livestock and has many industrial uses; however in many developing countries it is still used as a food crop. Small-scale farmers in both sub-Saharan Africa and Mesoamerica generally grow maize as a food crop for household consumption and for saline urban markets. Maize is particularly important in the diets of the rural and urban poor in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. Globally, maize is grown in 165 countries in a total of 185.1 million hectares area with 1018.1 million tones of production and 5.52 tonnes/ha productivity (Anonymous 2015-16). Almost 70% of the total maize production in the developing world is coming from low and lower middle income countries. In Asia, maize has recorded the fastest annual growth (around 4%), as compared to other cereals. Maximum maize production was in USA (353.7 million tonnes) followed by China (218.6 million tonnes) and Brazil (80.3 million tonnes) (Fig. 1), while the area under maize cultivation was in China (36.3 million hectare) followed by USA (35.5 million hectare) and Brazil (15.3 million hectare) (Fig. 2). The average world maize productivity is 5500 kg/ha, but the highest productivity of maize was achieved in USA (9970 kg/ha) followed by Canada (9591 kg/ha) and France (8137 kg/ha) (Fig. 3).

Introduction and Concept

The word fungicide has originated from two Latin words: viz. fungus and caedo (to kill). So literally, a fungicide would be any physical or chemical agency which kills a fungus. However, the word is restricted to chemicals. Hence, the word fungicide should mean a chemical capable of killing fungi. However, there are a number of compounds which do not kill the fungus. They simply inhibit growth or spore germination temporarily. If the fungus is freed from such substances, it would revive. Such a chemical is called a fungistat. and the phenomenon as fungistasis. Some other chemicals, like certain phenantherene derivatives and bordeaux mixture may inhibit spore production without affecting vegetative growth. These are called antisporulants. There are other groups of chemicals which exhibit very poor or no antifungal activity in vitro condition but provide protection to the plants either by inhibiting the penetration of host surface by the fungi or by inducing the host defense system. The former type of chemicals are termed as antipenetrants and later as antipathic agents. Even though fungistats, antisporulants, antipenentrants, and antipathic agents do not kill fungi, they are included under the broad term fungicide because by common usage, the word fungicide has been defined as chemical substance which has ability to prevent damage caused by fungi to plants and their products. Fungicide which is effective only if applied prior to fungal infection is called protectants. On the other hand, fungicide which is capable of eradicating a fungus after it has caused infection, and thereby curing the plant, is called therapeutant.

1.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in Asia namely North West India, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Western Tien Shan
• According to Vavilov (1951), it was originated in Pakistan.
• Jones and Mann (1963) stated that areas comprising Pakistan, Iran and mountain areas to the North India are primary centres of origin
• India is the second largest producer in the world, next to China and ranks third in export of onions, next to Netherlands and Spain.
• Maharashtra is the leading onion producing state in India, followed by Karnataka and Gujarat.
• Grown in Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and Bihar

1.2. Onion types in India

• Common onion (Allium cepa var. cepa) - Large bulbs born singly and propagated through seeds. Used as salad or in curries.
• Multiplier onion or potato onion (Allium cepa var. aggregatum) -Producing small bulbs, borne in clusters and generally propagated through small bulbs. Used for seasoning curries.

Introduction

It is the process of retaining food over a period of time without being contaminated by pathogenic organisms or chemicals and without losing its colour, texture, flavour and nutritious value. It involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms, as well as retarding the oxidation of fats which causes rancidity

Objective

• To increase its shelf life, retaining original nutritional values, colour, texture, and favour.

Introduction

A fundamental issue when analysing trade policy reform in global seafood market is the extent to which domestic agricultural commodity markets in developing countries respond to changes in international prices. Price trans mission from the world to domestic markets is central in understanding the extent of the integration of economic agents into the market process.

Studies on the transmission of price signals are founded on concepts related to competitive pricing behavior. In spatial terms, the classical paradigm of the Law of One Price, as well as the predictions on market integration provided by the standard spatial price determination models (Enke, 1951; Samuelson, 1952; Takayama and Judge, 1972) postulate that price transmission is complete with equilibrium prices of a commodity sold on competitive foreign and domestic markets differing only by transfer costs, when converted to a common currency. These models predict that changes in supply and demand conditions in one market will affect trade and therefore prices in other markets as equilibrium is restored through spatial arbitrage.

The absence of market integration, or of complete pass-through of price changes from one market to another has important implications for economic welfare. Incomplete price transmission arising either due to trade and other policies, or due to transaction costs such as poor transport and communication infrastructure, results in a reduction in the price information available to economic agents and consequently may lead to decisions that contribute to inefficient outcomes. Fisheries and seafood food trade policy reform, especially, is a priority issue in the next WTO negotiations, as trade liberalization is viewed as encouraging allocative efficiency and long run growth.

Introduction
The Kashmir Valley, situated in the western Himalayas between latitudes 33°01'N and 35°00'N and longitudes 73°48'E and 75°30'E, spans an area of 4,920 square kilometers and sits at an elevation of 1,585 meters. This region is rich in water resources, featuring numerous lakes, rivers, and wetlands. The ecosystem benefits from a continuous supply of water from perennial glaciers, mountain streams, and a multitude of springs. It is estimated that more than Exclusively Distributed by NIPA GENX Electronic Resources and Solution Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi 6% of Kashmir's land surface is covered by various types of water bodies, enhancing the valley's natural beauty (Zutshi and Gopal, 2000). Whether from glaciers, springs, rivers, or lakes, the water in Kashmir contributes significantly to its picturesque landscape. The Kashmir Valley hosts a variety of 23 fish species, both native and introduced (Bhat et al., 2020). Cypriniformes, the largest group of freshwater fish, are divided into two main superfamilies: Cyprinoidea (carp like fishes) and Cobitoidea (loach fishes). This classification covers a wide variety of aquatic species, highlighting the extensive biodiversity within the Cypriniformes order (Nelson et al, 2016). The initial documentation of cold-water fish in India was provided by Hamilton in 1822. The Cobitidae family, known as true loaches, includes species such as Botia birdi found in the Kashmir Valley. The family Balitoridae, specifically the subfamily Nemacheilinae, in this region include two scaleless fish species earlier named as Cobitis vittata and C. marmorata by Heckel (1838) but Kullander et al. (1999) renamed them as Triplophysa marmorata and T. kashmirensis and Paraschistura punjabensis. Loaches are a fascinating subject for aquatic enthusiasts and researchers alike. Found predominantly in Eurasian waters, these bottom-dwelling fish are recognized for their distinctive elongated bodies, small scales, and barbels around the mouth which aid in their sensory and feeding functions. Loaches are renowned for their adaptability, thriving in a variety of habitats ranging from fast-flowing rivers to stagnant ponds. With over 200 species classified across several genera, loaches exhibit a remarkable range of behaviours and ecological roles, from the well-known clown loach (Chromobotia macracanthus), popular in the aquarium trade, to the stone loach (Barbatula barbatula), a species integral to the ecosystems of European rivers and streams (Nelson, 2006; Kottelat, 2012). Loaches play significant roles in their natural habitats, contributing to the benthic community dynamics and nutrient cycling. Their sensitivity to environmental changes makes them valuable bioindicators for assessing the health of freshwater ecosystems (Kottelat & Freyhof, 2007).

1. Introduction
Soils stand out as an intricate and diverse ecosystem on our planet. Their significance extends beyond supplying 98.8% of the world’s food, encompassing a wide array of essential services such as carbon storage, regulation of greenhouse gas emissions, flood prevention, and offering support to burgeoning urban populations. However, it is crucial to recognize that soil is a finite natural resource. The unprecedented growth of the human population, escalating from 250 million in the year 1000 to 6.1 billion in 2000, with projections reaching 9.8 billion by 2050, along with the intensified practices of agricultural production, is exerting immense pressure on the sustainability of soils.
For long-term sustenance the concept of ‘Soil quality’ was propagated around three decades back from now in the United States of America, and further expanded to the scientists of European and Asian countries. Soil health and soil quality are two interweaving term that signifies the potentiality or capacity of soil towards mankind. These two words complement each other in such a way that one term automatically comes with another to determine both aspects i.e. agricultural sustainability and environmental quality in terms of plant, animal and human health (Haberern, 1992; Doran, 2002). Idowu et al. (2007) remarked that the term “soil quality” is more favoured by scientists, whereas “soil health” is a term favoured by farmers as it connotes a holistic approach to soil management. The inception and application of soil quality term was officially approved by Soil Science Society of America (SSSA). They defined soil quality as “The capacity of a specific kind of soil to function within natural or managed ecosystem boundaries, to sustain biological productivity, maintain environmental quality, and promote plant and animal health” as illustrated by Karlen et al. (1997). It is a complex composition of certain properties associated with physical (texture, bulk density, water holding capacity, infiltration capacity etc.), chemical (pH, EC, organic carbon, extractable macronutrient and micronutrient etc.) and biological (microbial activity and related parameters) conditions of soil (Prabha et al., 2020). There are primarily two key methodologies for assessing soil quality: the descriptive approach, which focuses on characterizing various aspects or attributes of soil quality, and the Indicative approach, which aims to identify the ability or capacity of an attribute in a desired manner. The comprehensive process of developing a soil quality index is guided by the 3-Is framework: the Identification of indicators, Interpretation, and Integration of selected soil quality indicators. It is important to note that the specific set of indicators utilized can vary between different soils, diverse agroecosystems, and from one crop to another. Additionally, climatic conditions and other abiotic factors may also significantly influence the assessment of soil quality.
The USDA has categorized soil quality indicators into four primary groups: visual, physical, chemical, and biological indicators. However, in the current context, the dominant indicators are physical, chemical, and biological. For a systematic assessment of soil quality, it is crucial to collect individual parameters and integrate them meaningfully. Consequently, integrated soil quality indicators

HACCP : The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) is a scientific, rational and systematic approach to identify, assess and control hazards during production, processing, manufacturing and use of food. It ensures safety of the food. HACCP presents a good opportunity for the food industry for upgrading quality and bringing uniformity and consistency in their supplies to international market. or It is a systematic preventive approach to food safety that addresses physical, chemical and biological hazards as a mean of prevention rather than finished product inspection. It involves identification, evaluation and control of hazards which are significant for food safety.

Plant structure

• Peach – In leaf axils is called – as (blind bud).
• Pecans and walnut, 2-4 buds development at one bud.
• Plants which grow from adventitious buds on the roots are called suckers.
• Some are broad-leaved evergreen: Citrus, mango, litchi, avocado.
• Narrow-leaved evergreen – (coniferous trees)
• Deciduous plants: apple, pears, grape, apricots, pecans.
• Monoecious: Walnut, pecan nut, hazelnut, Tung coconut, cucurbits.
• Dioecious: Papaya, date palm, pistachio nut muscadine grape pointed and snake gourds asparagus.
• Spike inflorescence: Banana
• Catkin: is a spike pecan nut, oak, mulberry, dates and walnut.
• Raceme: Pear
• Corymb: Cherry, pear, candytuft.
• Fascicle Inf.: Phlox and apple.
• Panicle: Mango, grape, litchi.
• Self-pollination (autogamy)
• Cross-pollination (autogamy) (gait gamy)
• Dischongamy: Walnut, pecan nut, macadamia nut.
• Self sterility: Almond, some fruit, onion, marigold.
• Incompatibility: Mango, ber, loquat, apple.
• Wind pollination: Walnut, pecan, nuts, coconut, dates.
• Insect pollination: Apple, mango, peach, fig, coconut.
• Birds: Pineapple and banana.
• Water: Water lily, water chestnut.
• Seedless fruits: Banana, pineapple.
• When plants set and mature fruits without pollination, it is called as vegetative parthenocarpy. Banana, Japanese person, fig, orange, grapefruit.
• Monocarpic: One crop of seed and then dies.
• Polycarpic: One crop of seed and then does not die.
• Media for propagation: 5.5-6.5 pH.

Introduction Salmonella is a gram-negative, rod shaped bacteria, facultative anaerobe and non-spore forming. Motile by peritrichous flagella, except S. Gallinarum & S. Pullorum. Salmonella is a genus consists two species called S. enterica and S. bongori and six subspecies viz., enterica I, salamae II, arizonae IIIa, diarizonae IIIb, houtenae IV, indica VI and bongori V. the sub species were categorized into serotypes based on serological characters like somatic (O) - lipopolysaccharides (LPS) on the external surface of the bacterial outer membrane, flagellin (H) – globular protein peritrichous flagella and capsular (Vi) – polysaccharide - O acetylated α 1-4, linked N- acetyl galactosaminuronic acids occurs only in S. Typhi, S. Paratyphi and S. Dublin. Salmonella plays an important role in affecting the safety of foods as it survives in a wider range of environmental conditions (Finn et al., 2013). Seafood are often contaminated with Salmonella (Duran and Marshall, 2005) and their presence causes negative impact on seafood export. During 2020-21, India exported 1.15 MMT of seafood worth US$ 5.96 billion mainly to the USA, China and EU, which are the major importers of Indian seafood (MPEDA, 2022).

1. Introduction
Ecosystem Services (ES) are actually the benefits human beings derive from their interaction with nature (Reyers et al., 2013; Ernstson, 2013). Around 400 BC, Plato observed how important service provided to Attica by the forests and subsequent loss of forests lead to drying spring and soil erosion (Mooney and Ehrlich, 1997). Thus, the work of Plato highlights that how the people were even then aware of the critical services provided by nature much before the industrial revolution (Rapidel et al., 2011). These ES are categorised into mainly provisioning, supporting, regulating and cultural services as per the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA, 2005). In fact, the increasing population warrants more and more set of ES (Biggs et al., 2015). A combination of factors responsible for delivery of ES like geology, climate, ecosystem, management scenarios, society, techniques, skills etc. that led to ES in an agricultural ecosystem (Kroll et al., 2012; Swinton et al., 2007). The ordinary nature largely comprised of agricultural lands (i.e., intensive crops, species poor, artificial pasture) that covers around 37.4% of total Earths’ land surface (FAOSTAT, 2016; Leff et al., 2004). Converting large tract of pristine lands into agricultural land and other competing uses considered to be one of the main reasons for biodiversity loss and land degradation (Tilman et al., 2001). Thus, meeting the challenge of working with limited arable land to feed our population in an eco-friendly manner requires our proper understanding of processes/mechanisms involved in nutrient availability/dynamics including fixation/ release pattern and refining the best management practices (Kumar et al., 2022a). The production of food has been targeted at the cost of other ES like supporting, cultural and non-marketable provisioning services (Muller et al., 2016; Foley et al., 2005; MEA, 2005). There is complex interaction between ecosystem and societal changes in an agricultural landscape. One is intermittently connected to other. Thus, it requires thorough understanding of the processes and biophysical factors that affect ES research, in particular and social-ecosystem, in general (Reed
et al., 2013; Carpenter et al., 2006; Plieninger et al., 2013). The ES that contribute to the agricultural production are mostly linked to aspect of soil fertility, biological control as well as pollination (Bommarco et al., 2013; Duru et al., 2015).

Importance of nutrient management in crop production can be very well explained by conducting various field trails by different fertilizer nutrient, methods of application and sources of fertilizer. Experiments on nutrient management are being carried out to study the impact of nutrient application, new techniques of fertilizer application, sources and doses of fertilizers on plant growth, yield and soil fertility and their efficiency over existing one was elucidated through various efficiency indices. The following efficiencies are normally being used in nutrient management studies.

Poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) is one of the most popular ornamental pot plants belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae. The botanical name Euphorbia pulcherrima means very beautiful. Euphorbia pulcherrima the name originally given by German botanist Karl Ludwig Wilenow was changed to “Poinsettia” in honour of “Mr. Poinsett” in 1836 by William Prescott. Poinsettia is a short-day, non-food and non-feed vegetatively propagated ornamental plant. Poinsettias are fascinating winter blooming small shrubs or trees which can grow anywhere from about 0.6 to 5 m tall. The coloured bracts of poinsettia plants are actually leaves. Colours of the bracts can be red, pink, orange, white or marbled. These coloured bracts are caused by photo-periodism. Poinsettias have also been called the lobster flower and the flame-leaf flower due to the red colour. California is the top U.S. Poinsettia-producing state.

Lucke (1862) first described that the bluish green discolouration of surgical dressing is associated with the presence of small vibrio like organisms. Latter Gessard first isolated the organism as Pseudomonas in 1882.

Properties of Genus

1. Morphology : They are Gram negative straight or curved rod, motile by one or more polar flagella. Usually it is 1.5 µm in length and 0.5 µm in width. Longer filamentous forms are sometimes observed. The bacteria are non- acid fast, non- sporulating and uncapsulated. Pili on the bacterial surface are detected. Environmental and strains present within tissue can produce slime. The slime is composed of glycolipoprotein (GLP) and polysaccharide of LPS.
    
2. They are strict aerobe.

Classification : Pseudomonas belongs to class Gamma-Proteobacteria, order- Pseudomonadales, family- Pseudomonadaceae.  Previously Pseudomonas included two group of bacteria viz. Fluorescent group and Pseudomallei group. Recent classification system included this Pseudomallei group into a new genus known as Burkholderia. Important species of Pseudomonas are:

A successfully developed new cultivar should have stable performance and broad adaptation over a range of environments, seasons and locations, in addition to high yielding potential. Evaluating performance stability and range of adaptation is become increasingly important in breeding programmes. Since, stability and adaptability are important selection criteria in breeding programmes, in depth research on stability is needed for a better estimate of crop performance and adaptability.

Genotype × season interaction is of major performance to the plant breeder in developing stable but high yielding varieties of crop plants. When new varieties are tested over a series of seasons, the relative ranking of the varieties for any given attribute is rarely the same at each season. This increases the difficulty of identifying superior stable genotypes. Comstock and Moll (1963) have shown statistically the effect of large genotype × environment interaction in reducing the progress from selection.

In order to minimize the genotype × season interaction, stratification of the seasons can be practiced. The implication in stratification is that suitable selections could be made for unfavourable and favourable seasons encountered within the sampling units proposed. Stratification of the environments has been practiced for a long time to identify suitable selection that could be made for the narrower range of environments encountered within the sampling units proposed. However, even with this refinement of technique, the interactions of genotypes with locations in a sub-region with environments encountered at the same location in different years, frequently remain too large (Allard and Bradshaw, 1964). Little is known about the environmental factors contributing to such interactions. Sprague (1966) suggested that even if such information were available, the possibility of materially reducing the genotype × environment interaction in field experiments would remain questionable.

Introduction

Soil is a vital, complex, and firm layer of the land surface that provides a source of minerals and organic matter interacting with air and water to harbor life forms. (Lobmann et al., 2022). Versatile micro and macro living organisms, i.e., bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes, inhabit soil and contribute to its quality, health, and inevitable role in serving the environment (Elsakhawy et al., 2022). Soil roots for a variety of crucial functions which involve ecosystem services or socioeconomic activities, e.g., biomass production, climate gas fluxes of CO2 , N2 O, and CH4 , water cleaning, storage and supply, foundation of construction and provision of construction materials, or provision of habitats etc. The responsibility of soil in sustaining life on earth by providing and conserving resources is not negotiable.