eChapters

Vitamins are natural and indispensable nutrients that are essential for our bodies in small quantities. Vitamins are indispensable for a multitude of biological functions, including growth, development, wound healing, maintaining healthy bones and tissues, supporting the immune system, and more. These vital organic compounds exhibit diverse biochemical functions and are essential for metabolic processes. The discovery of vitamins dates back to 1912 when Casimir Funk, a Polish American biochemist, initiated research on their sources, functions, and deficiency disorders. Because of his groundbreaking work, Funk is widely recognized as the pioneer of vitamins.

Types of vitamins

The classification of vitamins is determined by their solubility, resulting in two distinct groups: fat-soluble vitamins and water-soluble vitamins.

Fat-soluble vitamins

Fat-soluble vitamins, as their name implies, need fat for absorption and are stored in the fat cells. These vitamins include Vitamin A, D, E, and K.

Balsam (Impatiens balsamina) is an annual herbaceous flowering plant valued for its attractive flowers and use as a loose flower crop. It performs well under warm, humid conditions and is suitable for rainy-season cultivation. The chapter presents its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics, varieties and climatic and soil requirements. Detailed production practices include seed propagation, stem cuttings, micropropagation, land preparation, nutrient management, planting, irrigation, weed control, mulching, staking and pinching. Plant growth regulators, insect pests and diseases are also discussed. Particular attention is given to harvesting, postharvest handling and yield, making the chapter useful for commercial cultivation and practical floriculture education.

The methods of plant germplasm preservation or conservation depend  upon type of germplasm i.e. seed or non-seed clonal materials. 

Storage of Seeds

According to the storage tolerance of seeds to low temperature and dry environments seeds are further divided into storable (orthodox) and non-storable (recalcitrant) types. The orthodox seeds are those seeds which are fully desiccation tolerant. These basically include small seeded grain crops and vegetables. They can be stored for a long time under low temperature and low humidity environment and are separately stored in long, medium and short term storage conditions in accordance with the purpose of storage.

Abstract

Cut flowers of rose cv. ‘First Red’, with uniform stem length of 45 cm, harvested during different times of the year i.e. March, May and October, were used for standardization of holding solutions to increase the vase life. Harvest-wise pooled averages of two years data (2003-04) revealed that the cut flowers of March and May harvests gave increased flower diameter, more volume of solution consumed, maximum vase-life, reducing sugar and protein content with minimum weight loss when these were held in a solution containing 100 ppm 8-HQC (8-hydroxy quinoline citrate) +1.5 per cent sucrose. For getting similar results of October harvested flowers lower concentration of 8-HQC (50 ppm) with same level of sucrose was found most suitable

Youth, as a concept, has been generally defined all over the world as a group of human beings who have reached the end of puberty but have not yet acquired the full rights and duties of adult life ( Friedman: 1971).  Undeniably, the youth constitute a vast reservoir of energy especially in underdeveloped countries including India. Out of the 120 crores population of India, those in the 15 to 30 age group constitute 50 per cent which means that 60 crore young people, men and women, are available for handling various tasks of development, local, regional and national.  Progress of the country depends on the participation and full involvement of all sections of people especially youth. Youth can make their constructive contribution to national development and through which society can benefit from the idealism and sense of dedication of youth. At the same time, they also benefit from their active participation in developmental activities. Since such participation increases their self esteem, give them a sense of identity and of being needed by society.  The human life passes through various stage such as infancy, childhood, adolescence, youth, adult and old. Out of these stages the youth stage is very crucial and dynamic in the life of an individual as from this stage individual starts assuming responsibilities in the life and learns practically the social rules by coming in contact with world outside the family.  Youth is the time of life marked by growth and development. It is the period between childhood and maturity. United Nation has defined youth as those young people within the age group of 15 to 24 years both inclusive. Youth symbolizes zest, idealism, dynamism, enthusiasm and energy.

Genus : Artocarpus 
Species : heterophyllus L. (Lamk.)
Family : Moraceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 56

Afamous traveller John de Marignolli has described jackfruit as ‘there is again another wonderful tree, which produced fruit on the trunk, and was very pleasing to see and the fruit was as big as a lamb‘. The rind is hard and has to be cut open by a sharp knife, the pulp inside is of pleasant flavour sweetness of which matches the honey and usually contains 500 or more chestnut like seeds which are eaten after roasting. In its place of origin (India) where it has been grown since ancient times it is held in great esteem. Theopharatus and Pliny who wrote about jackfruit also expressed similar opinion about the fruit. In India several vernacular names are given like Kanthal, Kathal, Panasa and Kantaka.

Introduction

A hatchery is such a facility where eggs are hatched under artificial conditions, especially those of poultry eggs. Poultry hatchery produce a majority of bird’s chicks by hatching their eggs including chicken, turkey, ducks, quails, goose and some minor bird species. A broiler breeder produces about 150-180 fertile eggs in a year of reproductive life. This reproductive capacity can’t be utilized without liberating the breeding hen from incubating eggs. In India, there is huge demand of day old chicks for commercial poultry farming and for that there is great scope for hatchery business. The competition in the hatchery industry is increasing day by day for efficient production of quality chicks economically. Therefore, it may be necessary for the hatchery man have thorough understanding of the basic and practical aspects of incubation and hatchery operation for efficient working.

Disease Forecasting

Definition

Forecasting involves all the activities in ascertaining and notifying the grower of community that conditions are sufficiently favourable for certain diseases, that application of control measures will result in economic gain or on the other hand, and just as important that the amount expected is unlikely to be enough to justify the expenditure of time, energy and money for control. The above statement made explicit distinction between positive forecast and negative forecast and both have value for growers as well as society in general.

Positive forecast: Employs need based chemical sprays, provides adequate protection to crop and reduces damage to environment.

Negative forecast: Avoids unnecessary chemical sprays, no risk to the crop health and no disruption of environment.

Soil organic matter is a key component of soil fertility, biological activity, aggregation and carbon storage. This chapter examines the origin, transformation and management of organic matter in agricultural soils, with particular attention to irrigated agroecosystems. It discusses the decomposition of organic matter under aerobic and anaerobic conditions and explains the major factors influencing decomposition rates. Microbial activity plays an important role in transforming organic materials and regulating nutrient cycling within the soil. The chapter introduces humus, humic substances and non-humic substances and explains interactions between clay and humus that influence soil properties. The relationship between soil organic matter and plant growth is also considered, highlighting its contribution to nutrient availability, soil structure and biological processes. Methods for maintaining soil organic matter and conserving soil carbon in agroecosystems are discussed along with factors controlling soil carbon levels. The chapter therefore establishes the importance of organic matter management for improving soil health, carbon conservation and the long-term sustainability of irrigated agricultural systems.

Abstract

The effects of packaging materials, temperature and dressers on bell pepper (Capsicum annuum, L.) seed storage, at the end of 24 months, revealed maximum test weight (5.15 g) in poly jar x refrigerator x cow dung. Maximum seed germination was observed in polythene bag x refrigerator x thiram. This combination resulted in slow but gradual decrease in germination from 3rd month (95.33%) to 24th month (75.33%). The same combination of treatments also extrapolated maximum SV-I (15-24 months) and  (Seed Vigour)SV-II (18-24 months). Stress test was maximum (50.01%) in poly jar x refrigerator x thiram. Thus, it was inferred that bell-pepper seed germination and vigour can be maintained for 24 months after treating the seeds with thiram, packing in polythene bag and then storing in refrigerator, after harvesting the crop.

1. HETEROSIS

1.1. Definition

Heterosis or hybrid vigor or outbreeding enhancement, is the increased function of any biological quality in a hybrid offspring. It is the occurrence of a genetically superior offspring from mixing the genes of its parents.

1.2. Inbreeding depression

Inbreeding depression is the reduced fitness in a given population as a result of breeding of related individuals. In general, the higher the genetic variation within a breeding population, the less likely it is to suffer from inbreeding depression.

Introduction

Quails are also called as Bater in Hindi. Quail farming business is economically very profitable. Quail farming in India is now recognized as an organized and scientifically based farming and a potential tool to fight with poverty and malnutrition. There is considerable scope for increasing the egg production further to meet the growing demand. The importance of quails in the poultry scenario of India is well recognized and quail production has registered a remarkable progress in the country since its introduction during mid seventies. Japanese quail farming offers a viable and practical solution to the problems of animal protein shortage and unemployment in developing countries. For small holders, it is an important source of income and employment generating venture besides providing nourishing food. Quail farming has been accepted by farmers as a potential alternative to chicken farming because of its small size, short incubation period, less floor space requirement, rapid growth, early onset of egg production, short generation interval, high rate of egg production, less susceptible to disease and low feed intake.

Quails are one of the most efficient biological machines for converting feed into animal of high biological value. At present in India, quails occupy the third largest position among poultry species next to the chicken and ducks. Quail meat is renounced for richness in vitamins, essential amino acids, unsaturated fatty acids, phospholipids and macro and micro elements. Cholesterol level is low as compared to chicken in quail egg and quail meat. Quail can adapt to varying environmental condition because of its hardy nature. Quail production requires less investment, gives quick return and higher profits and hence can be adapted by rural mass quickly. Incubation period of Japanese quail is 18 days. The Bob white quail is the second most important breeds of quail. Incubation period is 21 days. Quails were introduced in India in CARI in Izzatnagar in 1976 procuring hatching eggs from University of California.

Introduction The impact of COVID-19 on the fisheries and food industries of vary, and the situation is rapidly evolving. Fisheries products that are highly dependent on international trade suffered quite early in the development of the pandemic from the restrictions and closures of global markets, whereas fresh fish and shellfish supply chains were severely impacted by the closure of the food service sectors (e.g. hotels, restaurants and catering facilities, including school and work canteens). Although COVID-19 does not fish, the fisheries sector is still have indirect impact in the pandemic caused changing consumer demands, market access or logistical problems related to transportation and border restrictions (Purkait et al., 2020). This will in turn have a damaging the effect on fisheries and aquaculture farmers in livelihoods, as well as on their food security of the populations that rely heavily of the fish for protein and essential micronutrients. The processing sector also faced closures due to reduced/lost consumer demand. This has had a significant impact, especially on women, who form the majority of the workforce in the post-harvest sector (Avtar et al., 2021).

Failure to accurately diagnose ovarian function is said to be one of the reason for poor reproductive efficiency in this species. The information regarding ovarian function can be gathered either by observing the reproductive behavior of the animal, status of reproductive hormones or palpation of ovaries per rectum for the presence of cyclic or pathological structures. However, due to poor expression of estrus signs behavioral observations poorly reflect the accurate information about ovarian function in buffaloes. Similarly, palpation per rectum does not provide reliable diagnosis since the CL is frequently embedded deep in the ovarian stroma of buffalo ovary and findings vary due to its subjective nature. Furthermore, measurement of hormones requires sophisticated laboratory procedures/ instruments for making a correct diagnosis. Therefore, real time ultrasonic examination is a better alternative to ascertain reproductive status of buffaloes and for devising suitable strategies to optimize fertility of this species (Sharma, 2003). However, it is important to mention that information gained from ultrasound must be used in conjunction with reproductive history of the animal, palpation of genital tract, and other diagnostic procedures rather than in isolation.

Introduction
The accurate identification of crop varieties is crucial for agriculture, plant breeding, and intellectual property protection. DNA-based techniques have emerged as powerful tools for distinguishing between crop varieties due to their precision and reliability. However, several challenges persist in the adoption and implementation of these techniques. Conventionally, morphological descriptors are routinely used for establishing the identity of varieties. But these morphological descriptors suffer from many drawbacks such as influence of environment on trait expression, epistatic interactions, pleiotrophic effects etc. Furthermore, the paucity of sufficient number of these descriptors for unequivocal identification of increasing number of reference collection of varieties enforces to look for alternatives. Electrophoresis of seed proteins and isozyme analysis have overcome these limitations to some extent but now many powerful DNA based techniques are available. Since all genetic differences between individuals are laid down in the primary sequence of their genomic DNA, the straightforward method of identification of crop varieties and parental lines would be to determine this sequence for the genome under comparison. Sequencing requires huge monitory investment and it is practically impossible to sequence the whole genomes of all varieties. But with the automation in sequencing now possible, short stretches of amplified DNA can be sequenced. However, a more practical strategy would be to limit the comparisons to specific regions of the genome, which frequently differ between individuals.

Celosia is an attractive flowering crop valued for its distinctive inflorescences, bright colours and use as loose and ornamental flowers. The crop includes forms such as Cristata, Plumosa and Spicata, with the characteristic brain-like appearance of cockscomb resulting from fasciation. This chapter deals with the origin, distribution, genetics, botanical features and important varieties of Celosia. It explains climatic and soil requirements, propagation, land preparation, nutrient management, planting, irrigation and cultural practices for commercial production. The chapter also covers plant growth regulation, insect pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest management and yield. Its practical approach makes it relevant to students, growers and floriculture entrepreneurs.

Abstract

The effects of packaging materials, temperature and dressers on onion (Allium cepa, L.) seed storage, at the end of 24 months, revealed maximum test weight (3.67 g) in poly jar x refrigerator x cow dung. Maximum seed germination was observed in cloth bag x refrigerator x thiram. Maximum germination of 87.33 per cent at the end of 21 months was recorded in poly bag x room temperature x thiram which declind to 77.33 per cent by the end of 24 months. Similarly (seed vigour) SV-I, SV-II (up to 21 months) and stress test (up to 18 months) were maximum which showed a declining trend after this period. It can be inferred that the onion seed germination and vigour can be maintained for 21 months when packed in poly jar, stored in deep freezer (-20°C) after treating with thiram (0.3%).

Wind influences the plant life both physiologically and mechanically. Wind affects plant directly by increasing the transpiration and intake of CO₂. Thus raising the supply of CO₂ to the plants and thereby increase in photosynthesis. However, the increase in photosynthesis is again upto a certain wind speed beyond which its rate become constant. The warm and dry winds increase evaporative loss and cause moisture stress. Lodging is one of severe injury caused by strong winds which causes great yield loss depending upon the stage of crop. This injury is common in paddy, maize, wheat, sorghum and sugarcane. Strong winds damage fruit trees extensively by breaking leaves and twigs and causing fruit drops.

Introduction

Proteins are the most abundant organic compounds constituting major part of the body. Chemically, proteins are nitrogen containing macromolecules and polymers of L α-amino acids, which serve a wide range of structural and biological functions in animal body. For example, connective tissue made up of collagen, metabolicenzymes, neuro transmitters,signal in gmolecules, structural components of cell membranes and cell organelles, etc. all are chemically proteins.

Before goinginto the details of protein metabolism, first, we need to understand that there are majorly two sources of proteins in our body: dietary protein and body protein. Dietary protein is taken in diet, while body protein indicates the protein and amino acids synthesized in animal body to fulfill the requirements for growth and development. The digestion of proteins will not be discussed here as it has been described in detail in chapter 12. Dietary protein is digested in presence of several enzymes such as trypsin, pepsin, chymotrypsin, aminopeptidases and carboxypeptidases and is converted into mono-, di- and oligopeptides in stomach and small intestine; and finally converted into amino acids. These amino acids are transported to the systemthrough intestinal mucosa via active transport, from where they enter into the cells for further metabolism. Therefore, ‘metabolismof proteins’ is more appropriatelylearnt as ‘metabolism of amino acids’.