eChapters

Climate-based/smart (digital) irrigation practices and its management, irrigation automation, sensors based irrigation, robotic application in irrigation and artificial intelligence
Climate-smart (digital) irrigation: Aims and Objectives
Climate-smart irrigation (CSI) is a vital part of climate-smart agriculture,
aiming to
• Boost the productivity of irrigated farming and farmer incomes while minimizing negative social, political, and environmental consequences.
• Bridge the gap between potential and actual crop yields across different climates.
• Enhance the resilience of irrigated farming and related supply chains to current and future climate change impacts and other risks.
• Adapt irrigated farming to climate change by capitalizing on new opportunities and mitigating adverse effects.
• Reduce greenhouse gas emissions per unit of food, fiber, or fuel produced in irrigated systems, from farm to market.
• Identify and prioritize ways to cut GHG emissions from irrigated systems at various stages, from water sourcing to post-harvest processes.
• Improve the environmental sustainability of irrigated farming and supply chains while safeguarding water access for communities, protecting vulnerable groups’ livelihoods, and preserving aquatic ecosystems.
• Improve the sustainability and reducing the GHG emissions of existing crop production systems.
Irrigation is key to stable agricultural production, especially in dry conditions. CSI aims to improve existing and new irrigation systems by incorporating climate-smart principles. While good irrigation infrastructure is essential, it’s not enough. Effective CSI also requires supportive policies, strong institutions, good water governance, secure land and water tenure, farmer knowledge, market access, and credit availability.

Agricultural water consumes about 85% of the available water. The future hopes to solve world’s food problem lies in irrigation development. Considering the need of efficient management of water, which is crucial at this point understanding of different efficiencies of the irrigation related experiments or projects, is necessary. Irrigation efficiency is used to evaluate how effectively the available water is used in crop production. Water is conveyed through canal system, watercourses and channels to crop fields. Irrigation is applied to store water in the effective root zone of soil for use of crops. A considerable loss occurs after its diversion from sources to its actual use by crops. The extent of water loss in the process decides the irrigation efficiency. Irrigation efficiency declines as the water loss increases. A high efficiency of an irrigation project is always desirable. The efficiency may be estimated for various operations beginning from diversion of water to its actual use by crops, uniformity in its distribution in the root zone, its use for crop productivity, economics and so on.

In insects nervous system is highly developed and serves to coordinate the activities of its various systems. Units of this system are known as neurons. Which carry information in the form of electrical impulses from external and internal sensilla (Sensory cells) to appropriate effectors e.g., glands, muscles and glail cells. Nervous system of insects may be divided into three parts.

1. Central nervous system
2. Sympathetic or visceral nervous system
3. Peripheral nervous system.

Introduction

R is a language and environment for statistical computing and graphics. It is a GNU project which is similar to the S language and environment which was developed at Bell Laboratories (formerly AT&T, now Lucent Technologies) by John Chambers and colleagues. R can be considered as a different implementation of S. There are some important differences, but much code written for S runs unaltered under R.

R provides a wide variety of statistical (linear and nonlinear modelling, classical statistical tests, time-series analysis, classification, clustering) and graphical techniques, and is highly extensible. The S language is often the vehicle of choice for research in statistical methodology, and R provides an Open Source route to participation in that activity. In a nutshell, R is an open-source software environment for statistical computing that is rapidly becoming the tool of choice for data analysis in the life sciences and elsewhere. It’s developed by a large international community of scientists and programmers and is at the forefront of new developments in statistical computing.

Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Recent advances in the field of regenerative medicine have opened up newer therapeutic modalities using cell-based and cell-free therapies, particularly stem cells, as potential candidates. As per the definition, stem cells are the undifferentiated progenitor cells that can regenerate and can also differentiate into various specialized cells (Hoang et al., 2022). They can be classified as embryonic stem cells (ESCs), induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and postnatal adult stem cells (Locke et al., 2009). Among postnatal adult stem cells, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have emerged as a popular choice of candidate for therapeutics due to the relatively easy availability, simple isolation techniques, low risk of teratogenicity, minimal ethical and legal concerns unlike embryonic stem cells, hence, are easy to apply in clinical research and practice (Voga et al., 2020). Among MSCs of different origin, bone marrow and particularly adipose tissue-derived stem cells (ADMSCs) received more attention and are one of the most common and promising stem cell types. These cells can be simply obtained from subcutaneous and omental fat or liposuction aspirates for the treatment of diverse clinical applications (Kim &Heo, 2014). These cells can also be expanded vigorously in vitro and differentiated into specific cell lineages such as adipocytes, osteoblasts, chondrocytes, and neurocytes and are even genetically stable in long-term cultures (Miana& González, 2018). Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent progenitor cells possessing self-renewal ability (limited in vitro) and differentiation potential into mesenchymal lineages, according to the (ISCT) International Society for Cell and Gene Therapy (Dominici et al., 2006).

The ever mounting population in 21^st century is a great challenge for the researchers to provide ample food and that has to be achieved within the context of existing challenges such as deteriorated arable land along with increasing adverse affects of changing climate. There is demand to increase food production to the tune of 70% by 2050 (Wani and Sah, 2014). Although major crops have achieved good progress, vulneRability to climatic variability emerged as a serious concern in crop improvement which could be attributed to higher sowing densities that in turn lead to more competition for water and nutrients. Abiotic stresses can be considered as major yield restraining factors among different crops. The projected estimations for changes in abiotic stresses such as drought, water logging and heat reveals far serious concerns for crop productivity (Qin et al., 2011; Bailey-Serres et al., 2012). Therefore, the concern of global food security in the era of climate change has compelled plant scientists in different crops to shift to breeding for climate resilient genotypes. Maize, being a hardy crop has an inherent potential to perform well under sub-optimal environments with minimum crop management (Kole et al., 2015). Abiotic stresses such as drought, heat and water logging affects maize yield adversely.

Although, conventional breeding approaches have exploited its fullest potential for production of elite maize hybrids but still little success attained for breeding climate resilient genotypes or varieties owing to the fact that stress tolerance is multi-genic or quantitative in nature. Therefore, the best option is to utilize the molecular breeding along with the conventional approaches for development of climate smart varieties.

Introduction The increase in population has led to the demand for good quality food. Consumer food demand is a key factor in the development of many agricultural and food policy and high-quality food products with longer shelf lives is increasing all the time. Over recent years, Packaging has revolutionised the marketing and delivery of food goods, especially fishery products. The introduction of modern packaging technology and innovative packaging material processes paved the way for convenience products. In 2018, the value of fish and fish products exported was USD 164 billion because of improved chilling, packaging, and transportation technology has resulted in increased commerce in live, fresh, and chilled fish, which accounted for around 10% of global fish trade and 78% of the total amount shipped was for human consumption (Sofia 2020). When both fish and terrestrial meat exports for human consumption are considered, fish exports have been larger in value terms since 2016. (51% versus 49%). Furthermore, increased utilisation of fisheries and aquaculture products minimises loss and waste, which can assist reduce strain on fisheries resources and support sector sustainability.

11.1. Introduction

Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping (FCM) is a powerful soft computing technique that integrates elements of fuzzy logic and cognitive mapping to model complex systems. It allows for the representation of causal relationships between variables in an interpretable and flexible manner, making it particularly valuable for analyzing and simulating real-world dynamic systems. FCM has its roots in cognitive science, systems thinking, and artificial intelligence, enabling researchers and practitioners to model uncertainties and interdependencies effectively (Tyrovolas et al., 2023). The approach is particularly advantageous when dealing with complex, ill-structured problems where traditional mathematical modeling techniques fall short. By capturing expert knowledge and combining it with computational techniques, FCM helps in making informed predictions and policy decisions.

It is widely applied across multiple domains, including environmental management for sustainability assessments (Özesmi and Özesmi, 2004), decision support systems in business and governance, healthcare for medical diagnostics and treatment planning (Apostolopoulos et al., 2024), and socio economic planning for policy analysis and forecasting (Gray et al., 2015). Furthermore, its adaptability has led to its increasing integration with artificial intelligence, machine learning, and big data analytics, making it a promising approach for tackling contemporary challenges.

Introduction
An organism can be highly destructive in one habitat while coexisting peacefully in another. It is exceedingly challenging to forecast the impact of a new species on the local flora and fauna when it is brought into an ecosystem where it has never before lived naturally. In competition for resources and space, the imported species can surpass the native fauna. A delicate web of interdependence that gradually shaped over thousands of years is harmed when introduced species compete more successfully for resources because they have no predators in the area. In certain cases, they even kill and eat native populations (Raman et al., 2013). Fish species classified as non-native are those that have been intentionally introduced outside of their natural range (for example, to support aquaculture, improve a reservoir or recreational fishery, through the ornamental fish trade, or to control mosquitoes), accidentally introduced (for example, through bait releases, aquaculture escapes, or ballast water transport (Gupta and Everard, 2019), or introduced in the name of wellmeaning but misguided religious practices (Everard et al., 2019). Due to their higher birth rate, the tendency to feed on local fish species, increased growth rate, larger size, longer life spans, or competition for comparable food supplies and habitat, these species may negatively impact native fish species (Ricciardi and Rsmussen, 1998).
The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) classifies alien invasive species as those that spread quickly through natural or semi-natural ecosystems or habitats, act as change agents, and endanger the biological diversity of the host species. These invasive are widely dispersed across the world's ecosystems, including every class of living thing (Raghubanshi et al., 2005). Fish native to the area compete with exotics for food and habitat. The quality of the aquatic ecosystems may deteriorate, new illnesses and parasites may be introduced, hybrids may be produced, native fish may be killed, and genetic "pollution" may occur. All of these will eventually cause the priceless biodiversity to disappear (Nyman, 1991). The socioeconomic facets of the human population that depend on aquatic environments for survival are also at danger, in addition to possible consequences on the quantity or quality of biodiversity (Philipp et al., 1995). The most varied group of vertebrates is fish, and freshwater fish in particular are thought to be among the most critically threatened animal species due to the introduction of alien (or non-native) species, which are species that do not typically occur in an aquatic environment (CONABIO, 2008). According to Contreras-Balderas (1999), these species hurt local populations when they are introduced and harm ecosystems by causing the water body to deteriorate. Maclvor brought the first group of exotic fish in 1874, namely crucian carp

Abstract

Variously defined endophytes are highly diverse in plants in natural ecosystems, and most of them are symbiotic with of them are Asymptomatic presence of endophytic fungi in internal tissues on healthy host plants are able to play vital roles in physiology and biochemical processes. As a result of this interaction endophyte produces chemical substances having various applications. This chapter provides a brief review of certain grass and non-grass endophytes capable to extend beneficial impacts on host plants to sustain the unfavourable conditions of abiotic stresses. However, biotic stresses are also a matter of great concern, where endophytes can play important roles in combating the unfavourable situation. Endophytic fungi used in bio-control and other agriculture related sectors are also  highlighted in this review. Endophytic fungi producing volatile organic compounds reported from all over the world and their various applications find place in this article which has opened new frontiers of bioprospecting of endophytic fungi.

The information on soil-water content is necessary from the point of view of efficient water management of crop production as water required by crops is to be met from the water stored in their root zone. Soil water content changes periodically as a result of changes in field water balance components namely, precipitation, irrigation, evapotranspiration, runoff and deep percolation. Crop growth is adversely affected if the soil water depletes below certain level. For selection of crops, deciding of irrigation level and frequency of irrigation, the assessment of water content of soil is important.

Research methodology gives detailed justification about the research methods and procedures carried out in the present study. The present study focuses on the women’s involvement in the dairy farming and their empowerment. Keeping in view the specific objectives of the study and various aspects relating to these objectives the methodological framework has been formulated. The sub topic under the research methodology is as follow:

3.1 Locale of the study

The present study entitled “Retrospective Multidimensional Study on Magnitude of Participation of Women in Dairy Farming in East district of Sikkim” was carried out in the villages of East district of Sikkim. Sikkim is the second smallest states in India, with an area of 7,096 sq. km in size. The meaning of Sikkim is “The valley of rice”. It lies between 27 º33' 00" N and 88 º30' 00" E. The average annual temperature of the state is 18 ºC (64 ºF) and annual rainfall is 2739 mm. The state is situated in the Eastern Himalayas and it shares its border with countries like Tibet, Nepal and Bhutan. Mt Kanchendzonga (8585m) which is the third highest peak in the world is situated at Sikkim. According to 2011 census, population of state was 610,577 with male population of 323,070 and female population of 287,507. The literacy rate in the state is 81.40 percent. The density of the state is 86 people per km2 (Census,2011). The cattle population in the state was 264,860 in number (BAHS,2019). The state has four district- East, West, North, and South (Registrar General of India, 1989).

Abstract

The advent of modern chemical industry has resulted in the release of huge amounts of novel organic compounds, as industrial by-products, pesticides, other agrochemicals etc into the environment. These new compounds tend to resist biodegradation, with potential consequences such as persistence in the environment or bioaccumulation in food chains. Early detection of toxic chemical compounds in the environment, particularly in water, and their biological effects on organisms has therefore become increasingly important. The traditional approach to environmental pollution assessment is based on chemical analytical methods which only provide information about the absolute concentrations of known chemicals in the environmental sample without an adequate interpretation of its toxicity to biota. In order to get more relevant information about environmental pollution risk, it is therefore inevitable to supplement the chemical analytical data with the results of methods providing information on biological impacts. The negative biological effects of pollutants present in all kinds of environmental samples can be assessed using different living organisms or cells as ‘analytical devices’. The biological response following the exposure of living organisms or cells to environmental sample usually gives an information on toxicity, genotoxicity, estrogenicity etc. of the whole mixture of chemical compounds. According to the technical principle, methods of biological monitoring can be classified to bioassays, biosensors, immunoassays, and ecological methods. Besides being sensitive only to the bioavailable fraction of pollutants, biotests also have the power to assess the integrated effect of interacting chemical compounds and to detect the compounds, which are toxic only due to bioactivation.

Annual rainfall requirement- 75-190 cm

Common names of Malda - Fazli in Calcutta Bombay green in UP Sehroli in Delhi

• The ‘Portuguese Jesuits in Goa started Inarching about 300 years ago. (90% success)
• The seedlings can be inarched when they are three months old as is done in the “Philippines”.
• The Indian nurserymen usually practice inarching in one-year-old seedlings.
• Grafts onto older seedlings result in poor root system.
• There should be no rain; otherwise, water gets inside the union and causes rotting of tissues.
• The name Mangifera was given for the first time by “Bontus” in 1658 when he referred to this as arbor Mangifera (the tree producing mango). Linnaeus also referred it as Mangifera arbor in 1747 before changing the name to its present form “Mangifera indica” in 1753.

Mango was firstly grown within glasshouse in 1960 at England.

Introduction

Irrigated agriculture is dependent on an adequate water supply of usable quality. The water quality used for irrigation is essential for the yield of crops, maintenance of soil productivity, and protection of the environment as well. The quality of irrigation water is defined with respect to its effect on plant growth, soil properties, soil biological equilibrium, and irrigation technology. Conceptually, water quality refers to the characteristics of a water supply that will influence its suitability for a specific use, i.e. how well the quality meets the needs of the user. Specific uses have different quality needs and one water supply is considered more acceptable (of better quality) if it produces better results or causes fewer problems than an alternative water supply. For example, good quality river water which can be used successfully for irrigation may be unacceptable for municipal use without treatment to remove its sediment load. Similarly, snowmelt water of excellent quality for municipal use may be too corrosive for industrial use without treatment to reduce its corrosion potential.

Millions of people worldwide suffer from food insecurity and malnutrition, which are exacerbated by issues including pollution, overcrowding, climate change, and economic hardship. These problems highlight the necessity of changing food systems for better immunity and health since they lead to both undernutrition and overnutrition. Essential carbs, fiber, fats, and important micronutrients including iron, calcium, potassium, zinc, and magnesium are all found in nutrient-dense grains such as foxtail, kodo, proso, tiny, and pearl millets. These millets are widely accessible and have several health advantages. For example, pearl millet is high in amylose starch and contains essential minerals like phosphorus and magnesium, whereas proso millet is a good source of iron, calcium, potassium, and B-vitamins. B vitamins, iron, calcium, and zinc are all found in kodo millet, while finger millet is a great provider of calcium, iron and magnesium. The nutritional profile of millets is further improved by processing methods like milling, germination, extrusion, and fermentation. Prominent research organizations, including as ICRISAT, ICAR, and CGIAR, are actively working to conserve millet and create better types to combat chronic illnesses and malnutrition. Targeted improvements in disease resistance and nutrient content are now possible because to biotechnology advancements. For improved worldwide health outcomes, dietary patterns must nonetheless be changed and these nutrient rich grains incorporated into contemporary food systems, notwithstanding current advancements.

India’s bakery market at 49.5 billion tonnes makes it the third largest market in Asia Pacific, only after Japan and Australia. 72 The bakery industry in India comprises of organized and unorganized sectors. The organized sector consists of large, medium and small-scale manufacturers who produce packaged biscuits and bread. The unorganized sector consists of small bakery units, cottage and household type manufacturing their goods without much packaging and distributing their goods in the surrounding areas. Bread market is estimated to be growing at around 7% p.a. in volume terms, whereas the biscuit market has witnessed a higher growth at around 8–10%. Within the biscuit category, cream and specialty biscuits are growing at a faster rate of 20% p.a. The per-capita consumption of biscuits in India is around 900 gm as compared to 15–20 kg. for developed countries. The consumption of biscuits is equally divided between the urban and rural population. Demand for biscuits in 2003–2004 is likely to exceed 1.2 million tonnes.

Introduction

Impact Assessment is simply defined as the process of identifying the future consequences of a current or proposed action. The “impact” is the difference between what would happen with the action and what would happen without it (International Association for Impact Assessment). It’s a structured process for considering the implications, for people and their environment, of proposed actions while there is still an opportunity to modify (or even, if appropriate, abandon) the proposals. It is applied at all levels of decision-making, from policies to specific projects.

IA aims to

• provide information for decision-making that analyses the biophysical, social, economic and institutional consequences of proposed actions;

• promote transparency and participation of the public in decision-making;

• identify procedures and methods for the follow-up (monitoring and mitigation of adverse consequences) in policy, planning and project cycles; and contribute to environmentally sound and sustainable development.

? Secondary metabolites of toxigenic fungi on animal food and food ingredients which causes adverse effects when consumed.

? 1942-44: Mycotoxicosis in man and animals was recognized in Russia. Fatal outbreaks of “toxic alimentary aleukia”. 

? 1955: “Hepatitis X” in dog and in cattle and swine in 1957.

? 1960: “Turkey- X disease” and 100,000 turkeys died in England due to Aspergillus flavus infested ground nut meal.

? 1962: Aflatoxin was first isolated.

? Favorable conditions for growth of fungi: Min. 15% moisture (10-13%), relative humidity: 90-95% (> 70%), ambient temp. of 24-25ºC (4-35ºC).

? Moulds infested feed along with nutritionally poor and inadequate diet makes animal more susceptible to mycotoxins induced harmful effects.

? More than 100 toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins have been identified during the last three decades.

Abstract

Climate variability/change is one of the very significant concerns discussed in the recent two decades. Its impact on air temperature and precipitation has received massive attention worldwide as they affect both the spatial and temporal patterns of water availability. Hence, it is becoming clearer that analysis of trends in air temperature and rainfall is significant in studying the impacts of climate variability/change for water resources planning and management. Therefore, the aim of the study was to detect theannual, seasonal and monthly trends in air temperature and rainfall in the Râmgangâ river basin. Daily air temperature (Bareilly and Moradabad) and rainfall data (Shahajahanpur, Bareilly, Bareilly BPO and Moradabad)of 40 years (1971 to 2010) were used for the study. Non-parametric Mann-Kendall test and theTheil-Sen’s Slope Estimator was used for determination of estimating the trend and magnitude of the trend. Findings revealed that the basin is experiencing a warming trend because of the rise in themaximum and minimum air temperature. In case of rainfall, Moradabad showna significant high positive trend during the monsoon season. This would alter the river run-off in long run if the existing trend continues to persist like this.

Keywords: Climate change/Variability, Mann-Kendall test, Theil-Sen’s Slope estimator, Water resource planning