eChapters

Introduction

Groundwater resources are under stress globally due to various reasons including increasing water demand, impending climate change, industrialization, land use/land cover changes, etc. Adequate sustainable development strategies have to be adopted for the management of groundwater resources. Irrespective of the developmental status of countries all over the world, groundwater serves as a crucial resource for meeting fundamental needs. However, increasing population, water demand, surface water contamination, and recent patterns of climate unpredictability have caused increasing reliance on groundwater as reported by several researchers (Adimalla and Taloor 2020; Aladejana et al. 2020; Cuthbert et al. 2019; Green 2016; Hamed et al. 2018; Jasrotia et al. 2019; Khalaj et al. 2019; Li 2016; McGill et al. 2019; Morsy et al. 2017; Taloor et al. 2020).

Even in India, water scarcity has been reported in many parts, though the country receives relatively higher rainfall. However, the rainfall pattern has changed over the last few years. The country has been experiencing significant spatiotemporal changes in rainfall patterns, leading to fewer rainy days and more extreme rainfall, which many studies have attributed to global climate change and anthropogenic influences. The rainfall variability has substantial impacts on water availability, agricultural productivity, and welfare of the 1.2 billion people in India because agriculture in India feeds about 17.2% of the global population and more than 56% of the agricultural land is rain-fed. Rapid and heavy patterns of rainfall result in the draining of most of the rainfall as surface runoff particularly on higher slopes, and reaches the surface water bodies, thereby reducing the infiltration and subsequent groundwater recharge. These variations in rainfall have ultimately affected the groundwater behavior and availability in many river basins.

The full name of an organism technically has eight terms. For the dog it is: Eukarya, Animalia, Chordata, Mammalia, Carnivora, Canidae, Canis, and lupus. Notice that each name is capitalized except for species, and the genus and species names are italicized. Scientists generally refer to an organism only by its genus and species, which is its two-word scientific name, or binomial nomenclature. Therefore, the scientific name of the dog is Canis lupus. The name at each level is also a taxonomy Carnivora is the name of the taxon at the order level; Canidae is the taxon at the family level, and so forth. Organisms also have a common name that people typically use, in this case, dog. Note that the dog is additionally a subspecies: the “familiaris” in Canis lupus familiaris. Subspecies are members of the same species that are capable of mating and reproducing viable offspring, but they are separate subspecies due to geographic or behavioural isolation or other factors. Dogs, which are under the species Canis lupus familiaris, are known to have a total of 78 chromosomes (2n). The diploid genes can be classified into 38 pairs with two sex chromosomes.

The chief functions of Clinical Microbiological laboratory are to examine and culture specimens for microorganisms, to make accurate species identification of important isolates and to perform antibiotic susceptibility tests when indicated. These tasks will assist physicians in the diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases.

Once the specimen is received in the laboratory, the specimens are examined visually depending on the physicians order and the nature of the specimen. Wet mounts and smears may be prepared and stained for microscopic examination. Observations may or may not be immediately reported to the physicians depending on the definitiveness of the results. Timely information may often be used to establish a presumptive diagnosis and institute a specific course of therapy. Specimens that require definitive identification of potentially pathogenic microbes are processed further. All agar plates are streaked for colony isolation; then plates and broths. All cultures are placed in an incubator with appropriate temperature and environmental conditions to maximize the growth and replication of microbes. Often a presumptive microbial identificationcan be made. A final report should be delayed while subcultures and additional test procedures are performed to identify the organisms definitively.

Preliminary Identification of Unknown Bacteria
A number of techniques may be used in the direct microscopic examination of clinical specimens to demonstrate the presence of microbes The examination of wet mounts of unstained materials by phase contrast or
dark field microscopy is useful for demonstrating motility, spirochaetes and endospores. Giemsa, Wright or acridine orange stains may be helpful in observing bacterial forms that stain poorly or that have little contrast from
back ground material.

ABSTRACT

Biodiversity is often understood in terms of wide variety of plants, animals and micro-organisms existing on the earth. So far, about 1.75 million species have been identified, mostly small creatures such as insects. According to scientific estimates, there are actually about 13 million species, although range from 3 million to 100 millions. The present article deals with the importance and threats of biodiversity as well as tries to highlights the role of government and non-government sectors in conservation of biodiversity. The initial part of the article indicates the concept of evolution and biodiversity, wherein we have tried to identify the present scenario. We find that a wide range of microbial, plant and animal species are sources of various biological products for human use and welfare. These species are getting lost or extinct due to lack of conservation over a period of long time. Therefore, an effort has been made to highlight the conservation acts and important rules and regulations for protecting and conserving the bio-resources.

Introduction
 
Food production systems in India are becoming increasingly vulner-able to climate variability and change which are largely characterized by altered frequency timing and magnitude of precipitation and temperature that trigger a series of other devastating events. High rates of snow and glacial melting, frequent floods and droughts, heat waves, hail and increased incidence of pests and diseases are already causing widespread damage and losses to agricultural sector in tropical and sub-tropical countries including India. Overwhelming direct damage to crops and livestock within few minutes can be caused by extreme weather events such as hail, wind­storm, or heavy frost. While occurrence, losses and post disaster management have been discussed extensively for natural calamities such as excess rainfall, drought and flood, little attention has been given to hail storm.

In this chapter the data collected in Silent Valley and Mukkali on the abundance of birds are discussed. Species abundance relations of the community is also prepared and presented in this chapter.

METHODS

Abundance : Total number of birds seen in each month and seasons (summer and monsoon) were calculated using the census data.

Density : Density of birds in each month, in two seasons and individual density of selected species were also calculated. The density was estimated using the line transect method (Burnham et al., 1980). The Fourier series method, which is used for analysis, is not dependent on specific distribution assumptions about the detection probability of birds at various perpendicular distances from the transect line. In this method density is computed from ungrouped, perpendicular distances from transect.

• General considerations

 • Direct examination

 • Culture methods

 • Some important tests used in identification of bacteria

 • Characteristics of some organisms

 • Gram positive cocci

 • Gram positive rods

 • Gram negative rods

 • Mycobacteria

 • Leptospira/spirochete

 • Rickettsia

 • Chlamydia

 • Mycoplasma

 • Fungi

 • Virus

 • Antibacterial sensitivity testing

Introduction

Climate change and human activities have emerged as significant factors affecting water resources in diverse regions (Kumar et al. 2022; Haddeland et al. 2014). The escalation in human water consumption for domestic and industrial purposes enhanced by the impacts of climate change has resulted in an overall decline in water availability (Liu et al. 2017; Paul et al. 2021). Rising temperatures and altered precipitation patterns directly influence water availability for ecosystems and agriculture potentially leading to greater evapotranspiration rates, intensified rainfall events, and prolonged droughts (Sharannya et al. 2021; Myers et al. 2023). Furthermore, urbanization, deforestation, and agricultural practices alter landscapes, affecting water resources in these areas.

Water shortages pose threats to ecosystem health, and socio-economic development and disrupt agricultural production (Piao et al. 2010). Thus, ensuring sustainable and efficient water usage necessitates accounting for water usage and quantifying it in a changing environment. To comprehensively assess the significance of water resources in the environment, Falkenmark (1995) introduced the concept of blue water (BW) and green water (GW) water, particularly for managing water resources in water-stressed regions. Green water refers to the portion of precipitation that infiltrates into the unsaturated soil layer and is subsequently utilized by plants through transpiration and soil evaporation. In fact, “blue water” represents surface and groundwater flow in rivers, lakes, and aquifers (Abate et al 2024; Sharannya et al. 2021). While numerous studies have investigated the spatial and temporal variation of BW and GW using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) (Feng et al. 2021; Li et al. 2009; Lyu et al. 2019), fewer publications have focused on assessing these variations and uncertainties at the basin scale under varying climate scenarios (Sharma et al. 2023). Hydrological models such as SWAT, serve as valuable tools for simulating past and future hydrological changes in the watersheds using projected climate data. SWAT specifically can simulate both blue and green flows at the watershed scale.

Policy research plays a critical role in influencing policy change by generating robust evidence that can guide decision-making processes. The use of evidence is crucial in ensuring that policies are both effective and appropriate to address specific issues. Evidence-based policy-making relies on credible, relevant and timely research that helps identify problems, evaluate potential solutions and
forecast the impacts of various policy options.
Role of Policy Research in Generating Evidence
1. Identification of issues: Policy research begins with identifying key issues or challenges that require policy intervention. This involves conducting systematic research to understand the scope, scale and
nature of the problem. For example, research on gender disparities in agricultural labor in India may highlight specific barriers women face, such as lack of access to resources or discriminatory practices.
2. Data collection and analysis: Gathering quantitative and qualitative data is essential for building a comprehensive understanding of the issue. For instance, data collection may involve surveys, interviews,
case studies and secondary data analysis to capture diverse perspectives and experiences. This data provides a solid foundation for analyzing the problem’s root causes and identifying the affected population.

Since time immemorial, women have played and continued to play a key role in conservation of basic life support system, such as, land, water, flora and fauna. Women power at present constitutes nearly half of the global population and account one third of the total work force. They contribute more than half of duties and responsibilities but are not given proper rights. In India till now rural women continue to struggle with dual responsibilities of economic production and domestic labour, and most are confronted by poverty, illiteracy, high health risks, inadequate access to productive resources, and lack of credit/market access. The empowerment and autonomy of women and the improvement of women’s social, political, legal and economic status is essential for sustainable rural development

Abstract

As the available surface water is too inadequate to fulfill the man’s requirements he was forced to locate newer groundwater reservoirs on one side and to control the fast depleting water table on the other side. As the ancient techniques have failed to give precise models on groundwater targeting, he was to invent and employ newer technologies. Under this scenario the recently invented spatial technology has emerged as a very powerful tool in groundwater targeting and management. The vistas and virtues of such spatial technology in groundwater management have been discussed in this overview paper by citing some case studies from Tamil Nadu, India.

Introduction

The term biological control was first used in scientific literature in 1914. Baker and Cook (1974) described biological control as “reduction of inoculum density or disease producing activities of a pathogen or parasite in its active or dormant state, by one or more organisms, accomplished naturally or thoroughly manipulation of environment, host, or antagonists or by mass introduction of one or more antagonists.”

Certain genera of fungi have greater potential for being effective bio-control agents eg. Trichoderma, Gliocladium, Chaetomium; entomogenous fungi as Entomophthora, Beauveria, Metarrhizium, Hirsutella; Nematophagous viz., Catenaria, Zoopage, Stylopage, Paecilomyces and predaceaus fungi like Arthrobotrys, Dictylella, Dactylaria and Nematoctonus (Narain, 2018). Biopesticide formulations based on these fungi are also called as “Microbial pesticides”.

Introduction

Functional elements are non-conventional biomolecules in foods that have the ability to modulate one or more body metabolic processes or pathways, leading in health advantages and well-being promotion. Research has demonstrated a connection between food, health and well-being functional elements. Consequently, functional elements have health-promoting roles connected with multiple progressive steps at various phases of disease control, from initiation to growth. They can therefore be implemented efficiently in disease therapy and prevention. Therefore, the borderline between food and medicine is becoming very thin at a moment when the role of a healthy diet in stopping non-communicable diseases is well recognized. Functional elements include plant-derived, non-nutritious and biologically active chemicals that operate in the body to avoid certain non-communicable diseases from occurring.

Food contains over 900 phytochemicals. One fruit or vegetable serving (about 120g) can contain as many as 100 distinct phytochemicals. Previously, functional elements were believed to happen predominantly only as phytochemicals in plant products including whole grains, fruits and vegetables. However, in animal goods such as milk, fermented dairy products and cold water fish, probiotics, conjugated linolenic acid, long-chain omega-3, −6 and −9 polyunsaturated fatty acids and bioactive peptides are also discovered. Usually, functional elements happen in various forms in food such as glycosylated, esterified, thiolated or hydroxylated materials. They also have numerous metabolic operations that enable positive impacts in the body on several illnesses and target tissues (Balic et al. 2020).

Introduction

One of the greatest challenges facing the world is how to meet the nutritional needs of a growing human population that is projected to hit 10 billion by 2050. To meet the additional food demands imposed by the nearly 30% population increase, global food production has to increase by as much as 50% (FAO, 2017). This problem is further multiplied due to the imminent threat of an acute shortage of space to grow food, degradation of arable land, limited resources, climate change etc. in traditional ways (Yang and Kim, 2020). Between 1984 and 2016, India faced depletion of arable land at a rate of 0.12 % per year, which means we are left with land to live on, but shortage of food. Hence, to tackle these problems, there is a need to adopt intensive, environmentally friendly, multidimensional and sustainable food production systems like aquaponics (Dijkgraaf et al., 2019).

Aquaponics is a sustainable method of growing fish, and vegetables as well as f lowers (Mohapatra et al., 2020). It is becoming quite popular with individuals as well as commercial farming entrepreneurs, and governments interested in modern farming for year-round food production in different climatic conditions. Moreover, with this type of versatile farming, we can grow considerably more food with less water, land and labour than the traditional farming systems.

Introdution

In developing countries, traditional methods have special advantages over modern agricultural techniques. The capital and technological skill requirements in the use of traditional technologies are generally low and their adoption often requires little restructure of the traditional societies. By adopting such indigenous knowledge, our ancestors did not face any problem of large scale pest out break or economic crisis unlike the today’s farmers. The present study focused with this central theme of research.

Indigenous Technical Knowledge refers to the unique, traditional, local knowledge existing within and developed around the specific conditions of women and men indigenous to a particular geographic area (Grenier, 1998). Indigenous Knowledge is the accumulated knowledge, skills and technology of the local people. Indigenous Knowledge has two powerful advantages over scientific knowledge like it has little or no cost, and is readily available. Indigenous Knowledge can be defined as the knowledge built up by a group of people through generations of living in close contact with nature over the years; the farmer in India had been using cow dung and cow urine as manure in the fields.

Abstract

With categories including food, building materials, medicinal plants and resins, non-wood forest products are the economically important face of biodiversity. Using non-wood forest products to generate income and alleviate poverty requires different approaches to their special characteristics. Among the features that distinguish non-wood forest products from other goods are the unpredictability of the quantities available, the lack of control of collectors over their growth conditions, and the difficulty of ensuring that the products can be placed on the market efficiently. In developed countries such as Finland, with under-harvesting of non-wood forest products, getting an economic benefit from these involves the seasonal migration of collectors. The latter is illustrated by the case of Thai in a working visit to Finland, to pick the often underutilized wild berry harvest in Lapland. The majority of the workers are from farming backgrounds, but there is a weak positive correlation between their non-wood forest product activity in Thailand and berry picking in Finland.

ABSTRACT

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images are being used more extensively than ever before for geosciences Applications in the moist tropics. With SAR's side viewing geometry, longer wavelengths, and almost all-weather sensing capability, SAR imagery has been extensively useful mapping tool for coastal geomorphology in the moist tropics. The purpose of this study to assess the use of Multitemporal C-band ENVISAT- ASAR data for identification of different coastal geomorphology in part of Tamilnadu coast. The orbital ASAR data was digitally geometric corrected (ortho-rectified) and filtered for speckle noise, and linearly stretched in order to enhance contrast between the coastal environment features. By using the methods of crisp enhancement, linear stretching and PCA, to show the various Coastal geomorphological units. The information extraction is based on recognition of the mechanism interactions occurring between radar signal and the target on the ground, represented by shallow water morphology in the intertidal conditions, coastal dunes, mangroves, marshes and highland. In an application perspective, Orbital ASAR data proved to be a fundamental source of information for both geomorphological mapping and land use pattern in moist tropical environments.

Key Words : ASAR, Geomorphology, Mangroves, Land Cover, Coastal mapping.

Foliage diversity of a forest stand has an important role in providing food for tropical forest birds. This feature adds to the ability of tropical forests to harbour high bird diversity. Studies on forest bird communities mainly examined the parameters like structure of forest bird communities (Nilson, 1983); distributions (Howe et al., 1981) and community organisation (Landers and Mac Mohan, 1980). The pioneering, studies of Mac Arthur and Mac Arthur (1961) established the relationship between bird diversity and foliage density. Mac Arthur et al. (1962) and Mac Arthur et al. (1966) supported the above hypothesis. Some studies have showed negative relationship also (Wiens, 1983). Other vegetation characters, which have significant effect on bird diversity are foliage volume, percentage vegetation cover (Karr and Roth, 1971), percentage canopy cover (Crawford et al., 1981; Wiens and Rottenberry, 1981; James and Wamer, 1982). In India Ramakrishnan (1983) examined many bird community parameters at Silent Valley. Diversity and structure of birds were also studied by Johnsingh et al. (1987), Katti (1989), Daniels (1989), Sundaramoorthy (1991), Johnsingh and Joshua (1994), Gokula and Vijayan (1996). Even though many studies have been reported on the forest bird communities from South India, relation between foliage abundance and bird diversity have not been dealt in detail. The correlation between the abundance of birds in different height classes of tropical forest canopy with foliage abundance is reported in this chapter. The study forms part of a major investigation (Jayson, 1994), which determined many ecological aspects of two bird communities. Seasonal changes in these bird communities were reported earlier (Jayson and Mathew, 2000).

Abstract

Food texture is one of the most widely measured quality attributes during postharvest handling, processing, and consumption. Given the subjectivity in human perception of food texture, texture measurement remains a complex exercise and thus presents both a charm and challenge for researchers and industry practitioners. For fresh foods such as fruit and vegetable, textural properties such as firmness are widely used as indices of readiness to harvest (maturity) to meet requirements for long term handling, storage and acceptability by the consumer. For processed foods, understanding texture properties is important for the control of processing operations suchasheating, frying and drying to attain desired quality attributes of the end product. Texture and viscosity measurement is one of the most common techniques and procedures in food and postharvest research and industrial practice. Foods are complex systems exhibiting various degrees of elasticity, viscosity, and plasticity. Because of its complex structure and mechanical behavior, objective measurements of food texture may be influenced by a variety of test conditions, including rate of loading, the magnitude of deformations imposed upon the material, geometry of the loading surface, and localized yielding within the product tested. Various approaches have been used to evaluate the sensory attributes of texture in foods. However, the high cost and time consumption of organizing panelists and preparing food limit their use, and often, sensory texture evaluation is applied in combination with instrumental measurement.

Abstract

Palms are generally grown commercially in tropical climate. But some of the palms like coconut, areca nut and palmyra palm are cultivated successfully in West Bengal, Orissa, Assam, and some pockets of Bihar that lies under sub tropics of India.Due to unsuitable climatic factor their production is more affected by abiotic and biotic stress including different kinds of diseases. The important disease are bud rot, basal stem end rot, nut shedding,stem bleeding in coconut, mahali disease, foot rot, stem breaking in arecanut and palmyra palm in the region have negligible incidence of diseases. These destructive diseases are the major constrain in production and causes severe yield loss in these palm fruits. Therefore effective management strategies are required by continuous monitoring the incidence and severity of these diseases caused by different pathogens.

Integrated disease management is the most accepted strategies for sustainable crop production that involves the holistic approach integrating cultural, physical, mechanical, chemical and biological means to control the disease. However, results of the disease management trials depend upon soil condition, age of the crop, stage of disease development and weather parameters of that particular area. Although it is impossible to manage a field free of pathogen but considerable reduction of the disease can be achieved through a proper integrated disease management system. Thus the causes and remedy of the diseases prevalent mainly in palms particularly in subtropical conditions has been reviewed for better management and sustainable production.