eChapters

2.1 Introduction

Horticulture plays a pivotal role in global food production and is essential for ensuring food security and improving nutrition. However, the increasing pressure on agricultural resources, coupled with environmental challenges, necessitates the adoption of innovative technologies to enhance productivity and sustainability. Artificial Intelligence (AI) has emerged as a powerful tool in this regard, offering unprecedented capabilities in data analysis, pattern recognition, and decision-making. In horticulture, AI holds immense potential for revolutionizing crop and soil monitoring practices, enabling more efficient resource utilization and better management strategies.

2.2 Foundations of Ai in Crop and Soil Monitoring

Artificial Intelligence (AI) forms the backbone of modern crop monitoring techniques, enabling the processing of vast amounts of agricultural data and the extraction of actionable insights. This section provides an in-depth exploration of the fundamental principles of AI, machine learning, and deep learning, elucidating their applications in crop monitoring within horticulture.

2.1.1 Understanding Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Definition and Scope: AI refers to the development of computer systems capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence, such as learning, reasoning, and problem-solving.

Types of AI: AI can be categorized into two broad types: narrow AI, which is designed for specific tasks, and general AI, which exhibits human-like intelligence across a wide range of domains. In the context of crop monitoring, narrow AI applications are more prevalent, focusing on tasks such as image recognition, predictive modeling, and decision support.

Abstract

Nematodes are non-segmented worms typically 50 µm in diameter and 1 mm in length. Those few species responsible for plant diseases have received a lot of attention, but far less is known about the majority of the nematode community that plays beneficial roles in soil. Nematode diversity tends to be greatest in ecosystems with the least disturbance. Species of Aphelenchoides, Ditylenchus spp, Helicotylenchus, Meloidogyne spp., Pratylenchus, Scutellonema  and Rotylenchulus are obnoxious plant parasitic nematode beside Heterodera and Globodera. Soil temperature, soil structure, soil pH, soil moisture and soil texture play major role in movement of nematode, infestation and completion of life cycle under abiotic and biotic stresses.

As an engine requires fuel to run, similarly the animal body requires food to run its vital activities. Food, after its digestion, absorption and oxidation, provides energy to the body. The energy thus obtained is utilized by the animal for maintenance, growth, reproduction and production. Hence, a good quality of food should be provided to the animal so that it may fulfil all the requirements of the animal. Food contains water, carbohydrates fats, proteins, vitamins and minerals which are essential constituents of the body and indispensable for life. Water being an essential constituent of protoplasm carries out many other important and inevitable functions in the body. Water helps the body absorb nutrients from the food and throw out wastes from body in the form of sweat and urine. Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins provide energy to the body. Fat provides 2.25 times more energy than carbohydrate and proteins. Besides providing energy, proteins are also essential for body building, growth and repair of wear and tear of the body tissues. Vitamins protect the body against diseases and help in keeping eyes, gums, skin, teeth and bones healthy. Vitamins are required by the body in small quantities. Vitamins are essential for normal growth, health and reproduction. Prolonged deficiency of vitamins causes characteristic diseases. Minerals required in small quantities are essential for normal growth of body and maintaining good health. Skeleton system of the body contains principally Calcium and Phosphorus with small amount of Magnesium.

“Necessity is the mother of invention”, all of us must have heard this statement at some juncture in our lives. Most of us may even have even gone through the motion of inventing something when needed. However, more and more inventions happening today may not necessarily be necessities. These inventions definitely perform the task of improvingand making convenient our overall living environment. Past few years have seen an increasing awareness and understanding in the field of intellectual property. Among all aspects, one aspect of intellectual property that is gaining increasing attention of intellectual property owners is management of the intellectual property rights.

This brings to our minds one question, how was intellectual property management practised by early mankind? We all do know that early mankind has left no stone unturned to make theabove statement”Necessity is the mother of invention”, a reality. Mankind prospered by leaps and bounds on account of sharing their various discoveries and inventions. Way back then knowledge was meant to be shared, as aptly captured in the Sanskrit Sloka:

Introduction

Seed vigour is an important quality parameter, which needs to be assessed to supplement germination and viability tests to gain insight into the performance of a seed lot in the field or in storage. Several definitions have been offered to explain seed vigour. Isley (1957) defined vigour as “the sum total of all seed attributes, which favour stand establishment under unfavourable field conditions”. While, AOSA (2005) defined seed vigour as the sum total of all those properties in seed, which upon planting, result in rapid and uniform production of healthy seedlings under a wide range of environments, including both favourable and stress conditions and ISTA (1985) stated that seed vigour is the sum total of those properties of the seed, which determine the potential level of performance and activity of a non-dormant seed or seed lot during germination and seedling emergence.

In enhancing  the food production there appears to be two solutions, viz., horizontal or vertical increase in production.  In the vertical expansion of production varieties are important. High yielding, high starch and value added varieties suitable to each region/ cropping system play vital role in enhancing vertical production.  Therefore varieties especially value added consumer preferred ecologically adaptable ones hold the key and is very much true in tuber and root crops which have a significant role in supplementing the food and nutritional requirement in rural and semi urban population of India.

Organic farming primarily aimed at cultivating the land and raising crops in such a way so as to keep the soil alive and in good health by use of organic wastes and beneficial microbes. Organic farming is performed with an intension for maintaining diversity of crops, keeping soil healthy for future years, producing high quality products and recycling nutrients. Unlike modern agriculture, organic farming is not depended on synthetic chemicals. Instead, it depends on natural products to boost soil fertility through microbial activity. Organic farming uses a multiple cropping system, which benefits from growing several crops. This crop diversity supports a range of plants, insects, soil micro-organisms and animals that add to a healthy farming system. Organic farmings are of different types such as bio-farming, nature farming, eco-farming and biodynamic farming. Organic agriculture is developed with concented efforts by various people to create the symbiotic relationship between the nature and man. In the present day, organic agriculture has shown potentiality in commercial, social and environmental sector.

Organic farming is a production management system, which promotes agro-ecosystem and agrobiodiversity. The objective of organic farming is to generate all the required plant nutrients inside the farm and adopt crop protection using local resources. Organic farming emphasizes on the use of farm yard manure, crop residues, composts, vermi-compost and bio-fertilizers to enrich soil fertility and use of bio-control measures to manage insect and diseases. In particular, organic agriculture is intended to produce high quality, nutritious food which helps in preventive health care. Organic farming increases biodiversity at every level i.e. from micro-organism to mammals. It strengthens biodiversity by using bio-pesticides and inorganic fertilizers.

INTRODUCTION

Potato is a vegetatively propagated crop mainly through tubers. Seed is the costliest input, which constitutes nearly half of the production cost. Due to the high cost of seed, seed replacement rate is low, which results in build up of various tuberborne diseases.To maintain high tuber yield, multiplication is done through “Seed Plot Technique” (SPT), which involves seed production in low aphid pressure period to minimize transmission of viruses and also adopt a set of cultural practices aimed at minimizing disease spread. The production of healthy seed tubers through SPT is expensive and the low rate of tuber multiplication (normally 68 times) provides only a limited quantity of quality tubers. Further, the low aphid areas suitable for producing healthy seed in the country lie in the northern plains and high hills (> 1800 m above mean sea level). Changing climate scenario is likely to shrink the window for potato cultivation and increase pathogen/vector attacks across the country thereby seriously limiting quantity and quality of seed in the country. An alternative technology of true potato seed (TPS) or use of botanical seed has shown great potential for producing both diseasefree healthy (quality) and cheaper planting materials for commercial potato production. This chapter describes the classical TPS technology and two novel potential TPSbased technologies in potato propagation.

Garden should serve the feelings of comfort and pleasure along with soothing effect on mind and soul of the owner and the visitors. This should be the basic aim of the landscape designer along the budget. Landscape artist should never imitate another garden which has secured popularity but should develop one’s own design. Every plot or site may not be even and ideal for designing a garden. The principles of landscape design work together to create the overall look of the garden. Natural undulations of a barren landform should be utilized with its advantages and also to break the monotony of leveled plain. The principles of garden designing interact with the elements of color, texture, line, form and scale to develop a unified landscape design that blends the beauty of nature with the splendor of modern architecture.

ABSTRACT

Microbes are integral part of the terrestrial ecosystem. Their function ranges from nutrients mineralization, stress alleviation to bioremediation in soils .There is a great possibility of using microbial inoculants as a biological tool for sustainable forestry and agriculture. This review gives an overview on the benefits of microbial technology and their contribution in development of green technology.

Keywords: Green technology, Microbes, AMF, PGPRs, Microbial consortium, Carbon sequestration.

Introduction

The current population of our country is about 1.27 billion and the world population is predicted to grow from 6.9 billion in 2010 to 8.3 billion in 2030 and to 9.1 billion in 2050. By 2030, food demand is predicted to increase by 50% (70% by 2050). The main challenge facing the agricultural sector is not so much growing 70% more food in 40 years, but making 70% more food available on the plate (UNDESA, 2014). This rising food demand automatically put burden on the shoulder of formers especially for ASEAN countries such as India where population growth rate is high while resources are limited. India has about 141 million hectares area under cultivation out of its geographical area which 329 million hectares (Raghuwanshi, 2012; Parikh and James, 2012). Consequently, agriculture is, thus, one of the most important factors contributing to the economic growth of India (Kniivila, 2007). The production of the agricultural produce should be up to the mark to maintain this contribution. In order to enhance the crop production, fertilizers are needed because they supply the nutrients to the soil. By adding fertilizers, crop yields can often be doubled or even tripled.

The North Eastern Hill Region is the most suitable area of India for organic agricultural farming because of its numerous advantages. This region is said to be, by and large, organic by default or the farmers of this region are de facto organic producers. Truly, the farmers of this region are using very minimal or not even minimal amount of inorganic inputs like fertilizer and pesticides. Almost in all the seven states of this region, farmers are practicing traditional agriculture for thousands of years. Recently, only pockets of the region, the use of inorganic inputs have been started but the level of use is almost negligible. This low chemical input use (inorganic input) is the biggest strength in term of the possibility of organic agriculture in this hilly region. The conversion period of organic from inorganic agriculture will be much lower and easier in this region as compared to other parts of the country. Further, the conversion process will be much easier due to the readily available huge amount of forest biomass and the residues of diverse livestock population. Moreover, experimental results show that during the transition period, the farmers face the problem of yield losses, but in NE India it was observed that yield loss was minimum, sometimes nil, because farmers of this region are using very low level of inorganic inputs. Additionally, the organic products usually fetch higher prices, nearly 20-25 per cent premium as compared to the conventional products, which, may compensate the problem of yield losses during early period of conversion and thereby increase the level of income.

North-Eastern Hill Region is suitable for growing a number of high value crops and following good agricultural practices for cultivation of these crops are likely to increase farm income substantially. Enabling the state to follow systematic organic farm practices is likely to make the farming profession more remunerative. Present socio economic study indicated that the organic farm practices might be quite favourable particularly for few crops like pineapple, turmeric, ginger and cashew, which have readymade potential.

Common Name: Ganth gobhi or kadam

4.1 Introduction

Knol khol or kohlrabi is not very widely grown in our country except in Kashmir, West Bengal and some of the South Indian states. Kohlrabi is a herbaceous biennial grown for its edible stem. The edible part in kohlrabi is the tuber formed by the thickening of stem tissue above the cotyledons, i.e., swollen stem called knob or tuber. 

4.1 Introduction

It is an annual crop cultivated all over India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, China, Japan, South East Asia and Philippines. The fruits are available practically throughout the year. Brinjal fruits are a good source of calcium, phosphorus, iron and vitamins particularly ‘B’ group. A 100 g of edible fruit contains 91.5g of water, 6.4 g of carbohydrates, 1.3g of protein, 0.3g of fat and 0.5g of mineral matters. Its green leaves are the main source of vitamin C (38-104.7mg/100g). Dark purple brinjal has more vitamin C than those with white skin. Bitterness in brinjal is due to presence of glycoalkaloid solasodine. Generally, high amount of glycoalkaloids (20mg/100g) in the fruits produce a bitter taste and off flavour. Brinjal is reported to stimulate the intrapeptic metabolism of blood cholesterol and has marked drop in blood cholesterol level. The de-cholestrolising action is attributed due to the presence of poly-unsaturated fatty acids, PUFA (linoleic and linolenic) which are present in flesh and seeds of fruit in higher amount (65.1%). The presence of Mg and K salts also helps in de-cholestrolising action. Dry fruit is reported to contain goitrogenic principles. Aqueous extracts of fruit inhibit choline esterase activity of human plasma. Brinjal has got much potential as raw material in pickle making and dehydration industries. It is supposed to contain certain medicinal properties and white brinjal is said to be good for diabetic patients. The fruits are regarded as a cure for toothache. It is also an excellent remedy for those who are suffering from liver complaints. Cu content and polyphenol oxidase activity are highest in purple colour fruits and lowest in white fruit. Fe and catalase activity are highest in green fruited cultivars and lowest in white fruited cultivars. White fruited cultivars contain twice as much crude fibre as the purple and green fruited cultivars. Solanum ferox is yellow fruited type and is very popular in southern Europe, France and Italy and USA. Vitamin C content of brinjal is affected by canning. Toasting of fruits raises the nicotinic acid at the expense of trigonellin which is present in it and 66-69% of it is converted into nicotinic acid during toasting.

Introduction 
Modern energy policies place a strong emphasis on developing low-carbon energy sources while also ensuring that society has enough energy security. However, because fossil fuels play such a vital part in the global energy system, measures to reduce GHG emissions from fossil fuels must be found. Researchers and scientists are examining the characteristics of materials at the nanoscale level to identify compounds that might boost the efficiency of the energy sources we now use. The physical properties of several materials (such as strength, heat conductivity, and reflectance) alter at the nanoscale in comparison to their bulk properties. When compared to their bulk properties, several materials have distinct physical properties at the nanoscale (such as strength, electrical and thermal conductivity, and reflectance). several materials on a nanoscale. Additionally, materials with nanostructures are more suited for material-to-material interactions due to their higher surface to unit weight volume ratio. This is a useful characteristic as many chemical and electrical reactions take place at surfaces and are greatly impacted by the chemical composition of the reactant and the surface’s structure. The goal of nanotechnology research in the fossil fuel industry is to create novel catalysts that will improve the energy efficiency of the fossil fuel breakdown process. Given that heavy crude oil contains sulphur. The transformation of coal into liquid fuels for use in transportation requires the employment of several kinds of catalysts. Furthermore, because of their structure and the presence of electrons in their outer orbitals, which increases the potential for chemical reactions, the majority of typical catalysts used in cars today rely on valuable metals like platinum. Concerns about the supply of precious metals are raised by the industrialised world’s transport networks’ explosive expansion. Finding more affordable and readily available substitutes is imperative given the scarcity and high cost of these materials, and this will be emphasised in the researchers’ upcoming work. Additionally, because of their unique qualities that relate to the phenomena of corrosion resistance or their exceptionally strong qualities that are advantageous in turbomachinery components, nanomaterials are also helpful in power systems (1) . The application of nanotechnology in the production of resistant ceramics for use as insulators in gearbox lines results in smooth coatings that reduce the likelihood of fouling in cooling water intakes. Additionally, nanotechnology can improve a material’s conductivity and produce a superconductor at ambient temperature rather than a superconducting characteristic at very high temperatures. Renewable energy sources—also known as “green energy”—such as solar, wind, and ocean energy— allow countries to reduce their reliance on petroleum and address environmental problems related to the use of fossil fuels. In these technologies, nanotechnology is also employed. Mao and Chen concentrated their research efforts on developing nanotechnologies for a select group of renewable energy sources, including fuel cells, solar cells, hydrogen storage, and hydrogen generation. This research aims to provide a comprehensive comparative analysis of nanotechnology’s application to the development of sustainable energy systems, including nanomaterials, nanofluids, and nanostructures.

In the study of rural development, there are three frameworks of analysis, viz. neo-classical, Marxian and systems approaches. While the latter two are holistic approaches, the neo-classical framework provides the underpinning of modern microfinance, with its focus on the decision making of individual economic agents towards (short-term) profit or utility maximisation. Neo-classical discussion and policy prescriptions in microfinance are directed towards creating the conditions for the operation of free rural financial markets. Institutional economists have further used the imperfect information paradigm to focus on transaction costs of credit delivery that serve to explain and justify high interest rates charged by village moneylenders (Tankha, 2002).

Introduction

Under the present scenario of growing human population and shrinking land and water resources for agriculture, expanding abiotic and biotic stresses, increasing genetic erosion; relentless efforts are needed to enhance the plant productivity as well as quality of produce. In fact, improvements in agricultural production as well as food and nutrition conditions depend on land, water and energy resources, which are, undoubtedly, limited and depleting at a rapid pace.

Biotechnological innovations in conjunction with conventional technologies have opened new frontiers in agriculture thereby offering exciting opportunities for increased sustainability and profitability in agriculture. Thus, biotechnological tools complement (rather than replace) the traditional methods used to enhance the agricultural productivity to cater to the needs of third world agriculture (Swarup and Srivastava1990, Rao et al. 1996).

Organic farming is the form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop rotation, green manure, compost and biological pest control. Organic farming uses fertilizers and pesticides but excludes or strictly limits the use of manufactured (synthetic) fertilizers, pesticides (which include herbicides, insecticides and fungicides), plant growth regulators such as hormones, livestock antibiotics, food additives, genetically modified organisms, human sewage sludge, and nano materials.

There is a need to look for new means to check this menace. Chemical fertilizers are necessary to feed the ever increasing population of the nation but this needs to be supplemented with the organic manures. But organic manures are not available in sufficient quantity. Besides, they alone cannot meet the nutritional requirement of the crops and have to be applied alongwith the chemical fertilizers. Experimental results have shown that if organic fertilizers are applied then chemical use can be brought down to half. This will lead to favourable impact on the soil ecology besides saving large amounts that are being pumped to subsidize the chemical fertilizers.

Organic agriculture is picking up in some parts of our nation and it can generate viable farming option to small and marginal farmers. But short supply of the organic inputs is emerging as one of the major bottlenecks. Vermicomposting of city wastes and farm wastes can generate substantial volume of the organic fertilizer for use in our fields, thereby, helping us to overcome major hurdle in taking up organic agriculture production. This chapter attempts to identify the find out the ways and benefits of practicing organic farming and determines the economics of Vermicomposting technology.

Introduction

The art of fermentation process is developed as far back as thousand years ago without understanding the role of microorganism in it. It is believed that the process of fermentation originates in Indus valley during 7000 – 8000 BC. Archives of harappan civilization showed that different clay utensils were used for the fermented product and the agriculture and animal husbandry were fully developed during that period. It is evident from the artifacts of Egypt and middle east that the practice of fermentation was common in that part (Farnworth, 2003). The earliest practice of cheese making is originated from Falcate between Tigris and the Euphrates rivers in Iraq, 8000 years back. Later, Egyptians developed the use of yeast in wine and bread making during 4000 BC (Ross et al., 2002). Further, Sumarians prepared beer from fermented barley during 1750 BC. Earlier the fermenting process was an artisan way without any knowledge of microorganism. However, the main turning point was in 1608, when Antony Van Leeuwenhoek first established the use of a microscope and revealed the existence of microorganisms. Another, major finding was Pasteurization by Louis Pasteur in 1861 AD and this was the first report that documented the role of microorganism in fermentation. Later, there was a shift observed in the production of fermented food from local communities to large scale industry. The health effect of fermented food was first reported by Roman historian Pliny, who reported that fermented milk is beneficial for gastrointestinal complains. Further, a French paediatrician proved that Bifidobacteria in food prevents infants against infection (Grill et al., 1995).

Introduction

The term “biological control” was first used by Smith in 1919 to signify the use of natural enemies (whether introduced or otherwise manipulated) to control insect pests. DeBach (1964) defined biological control as the action of parasites, predators, or pathogens that maintain another organism's population density at a lower average than would occur in their absence (Dhaliwal and Arora, 2016). According to a recent definition by Eilenberg et al. (2001) biological control or biocontrol is “The use of living organisms to suppress the population density or impact of a specific pest organism, making it less abundant or less damaging than it would otherwise be.