eChapters

Local of the study: Migration, from very beginning of civilization, has been one of the most important phenomenons in population distribution across the world. As a result, it has been a major focus of both sociological as well as demographical studies around the world. Though migration theories get its root from the famous article of Ravenstein (1889) but most of the modern migration studies so far have centered around the conventional approach of migration as one of the cornerstones known as the Harris-Todaro Model of Migration Harris and Todaro (1970), which is considered as one of the cornerstones of migration studies. This model dealt with the migration decision of an individual of a family, keeping apart the role of family as a whole. The main approach of this model was some kind of cost-benefit type of assessment in undertaking migration decision. Here the potential migrant was to analyze the expected return that he/she may receive after migrating and the cost that to be borne in the process. If the net return is found to be positive then there is every chance that the concerned person will migrate and more from the place of origin to the place of destinations. The major attack that this approach received is that it gave individual the highest importance in migration decision ignoring the role of ‘family’ and thus the migration studies until recently were partial in nature.

1. Early Blight
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Brown-black necrotic spot-angular, oval shape characterized by concentric rings .
• The concentric ring produce a target board effect, the most characteristic symptom of the disease.
• Several spot coalesce & spread all over the leaf.
• In severe attacks leaves shrivel and fall down.
• Infection and rotting of tubers has also been reported (Fig.1).
Etiology
Scientific Classification
Kingdom : Fungi
Phylum : Ascomycota

Abstract

Mahua (Madhuca spp.) is an important tree in India, with high socio-economic, environmental and spiritual values. We carried out this study among the local communities of Azamgarh district (eastern Uttar Pradesh) and with the Gond and Baiga tribes from Raisen and Dindori districts, Madhya Pradesh. Among the five mahua species found in Indian subcontinent, Madhuca latifolia is widely distributed in the north and central plains, the focal area of our study. Mahua has been vital to the survival of these communities, particularly the Gond and Baiga tribes, from the time immemorial. It has been a major source of food energy in the form of sugar, seed oil and alcohol. As well, different parts of the tree are used as ethnomedicine. The tribal people’s high regard for mahua is reflected by its sustainable and regulated use. In this study, we present an in-depth analysis of conservation, management and sustainable use of mahua, and also suggest its role in socio-economic adaptation, with particular reference to climate change.

The major tuber crops cultivated in tropical countries are: cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.), yams (Dioscorea sp.), aroids (Amorphophallus, Alocasia, Xanthosoma, Colocasia ), Canna edulis, arrowroot, Chinese potato, winged bean and yam bean. In addition to this, there are a number of under exploited and under utilized tuber crops grown as wild cultivars having medicinal and pharmaceutical applications. Processing and utilization of tuber crops as food are traditional with both primitive as well as modern equipments being in use (Nanda and Kurup, 1994). One of the oldest traditional processing tools is a stone pounder for making poi from taro in Hawaii.

Indian crop production system excels in front of several biophysical adversities commonly known as biotic and abiotic stress.  Water is the principal factor limiting crop yield and about 2/3 of total cultivated landing India comprise of Dry land agriculture primarily under rainfed conditions with no or limited water supply system.  The Indian production systems are dominated by cereals, primarily rice maize, sorghum, pearl millet other coerces and fine cereals leguminous (urd bean, mung bean, peanut) and oil yielding crops during kharif and  wheat barley chickpea, lentil and forage legumes in rabi  season.  The production systems are generally characterized by cereal/legume mixed-cropping dominated by maize, millet, sorghum and wheat. The major constraints in both regions to crop production are low soil fertility, insecure rainfall, low-productive genotypes, low adoption of improved soil and crop management practices, and lack of appropriate institutional support. choice of crop  is important but selection of right varieties is utmost  important because  varieties which have proven excellent in irrigated or high rainfall areas are generally not suited for limited irrigated conditions.

Introduction

Quality seed plays seminal role in augmenting agricultural production as well as productivity. Only by using good quality seeds, productivity can be enhanced up to the tune of 15-20 per cent alone, but under optimum management, the increment may touch upon up to 45 per cent depending upon the crops since the efficiency and efficacy of all other inputs in the production technology gamut are contingent upon the quality of seeds being used. Since antiquity the importance of quality seed to enhance agricultural productivity is well evident as mentioned in old testimonials, literatures, scriptures, treatises, epics, and many other ancient documents.

Seed quality is the major decisive factor governing stand establishment of any crop and thus having immense importance and bears utmost priority in case of high value, low volume crops like vegetables in particular and for high volume low value crops in general for enhanced productivity and production as well (Mandal et al., 2015). A number of diverse materials/ treatments at varying doses have been used to increase the rate and uniformity of seedling emergence in wheat and rice, which are generally categorized for seed enhancement, which is a kind of value addition.

Seed enhancement may be defined as post-harvest treatments that improve germination and seedling growth or facilitate the delivery of seeds and other inputs/materials required at the time of sowing smoothly. Seed enhancement technology predominantly possess a central objective to further improve seed performance by treating with specific additives/ chemical/ organics/ botanicals, etc. under very specific regimes and with the aid of certain planting equipments to grow uniform crop obviously to harness higher productivity and production (Halmer, 2006). Various techniques have been employed to assure superior performance of additives in different crops and most have been found to have immense commercial application (TeKrony, 2006). This includes three general areas of enhancement: pre sowing hydration treatment (priming), coating, pelleting technologies and seed conditioning.

Introduction

The resource conservation technologies (RCTs) primarily focus on resource-savings management systems for agricultural production through minimal tillage operation, maintaining soil health for available plant nutrients and conserving soil moisture through crop residues and/or cover crops, and following cropping sequence in spatial and temporal scale. The integration of resource-conserving technologies working in synergy is commonly referred to as conservation agriculture (CA). The CA is “a concept for resource-saving agricultural crop production that strives to achieve acceptable profits together with high and sustained production levels while concurrently conserving the environment” (FAO 2007). The CA envisages four principles: (i) minimizing mechanical soil disturbance and seeding directly into untilled soil, (ii) maximizing crop residue retention and/or growing cover crops, (iii) optimizing diversification of cropping sequences and rotations, and (iv) minimizing mechanical soil compaction through controlled traffic. The CA technologies involving no- or minimum-tillage with direct seeding and bed planting, residue management and crop diversification have potential for improving productivity and soil quality, mainly by soil organic matter build-up. Conservation agriculture systems appear to be appealing options to achieve sustainable and intensive crop production under different agroecological environments because they use available resources efficiently and maintain soil fertility. However, there is a need for wider scale testing of these new technologies under diverse production systems, as the CA technologies are site specific and therefore appraisal of CA is important to have significant adoption (Ramesh et al., 2016)

1.3 Dextrose

Sweets which include dextrose have different eating qualities to those made with sucrose and glucose syrup alone. Recipes should be balanced so that the sucrose to dextrose ratio achieves the required product texture.

The incorporation of dextrose will increase the likelihood that crystallization will occur either on store or during manufacture. Replacement usage levels for dextrose normally lie between 5% and 15% of the Sucrose content

Grapevine

One of the fruits that is grown worldwide most commonly, grapes are said to have a longer history of human interaction than either rice or wheat. Apart from their nutritional significance, grapes are today regarded as one of the most lucrative crops. The grapes are farmed for a variety of uses, including the manufacture of raisins, wine, juice, canning, and table grapes. More grapes are produced worldwide than any other fruit crop. Approximately 11 million hectares are devoted to growing grapes, which yield 75 million tonnes yearly. More than half of the world’s supply of grapes was produced in Spain, Italy, and France. Grapes are cultivated in India in both tropical and subtropical climates. In Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, commercial grape production only started in the last 40 years. Grapevine production affect many sever diseases like downy mildew, powdery mildew, Anthracnose, Black rot, Rust, Bacterial canker and abiotic causes.

Historical background of dairy goats

Small ruminants sector plays an important role in the national economy. This enterprise is associated with social and cultural fabric of millions of resource poor farmers. Small ruminant especially goats gain importance mainly on account of their short generation intervals, higher rates of prolificacy and the ease with which they can be marketed. They are very useful in semi-arid and arid zone where they can sustain themselves on sparse vegetation and esteemed climatic conditions.
 
There are four main breeds of dairy goats commonly found in Western Country, namely, Alpine, Nubians, Saanens and Toggenburgs. They are considered to be the best milking breeds of the world. All these four breeds have recently been introduced in India for improvement of milk quality of local goats. These breeds have been improved by selection, upgrading, and the wise use of pedigree records and registration over a period of more than half a century in Europe and North America.

Introduction

In India, around 70 per cent of cultivated land is under rainfed condition, but it accounts for about 42 per cent of the total quantity of produced food grains (Sujatha et al., 2013). It was estimated that using quality seeds, productivity can be enhanced up to the extent of 15-20 per cent and under optimum management, the increment may touch upon up to 45 per cent depending upon the crops. Quality seeds play a major role, along with improved package of practices leading to enhanced productivity. Crops propagated with seeds face many problems: Poor seed germination, poor seedling establishment under several abiotic stresses such as, drought, salinity and poor seedling vigour. The capacity of a crop propagated with seeds to grow depends on its genetic constituent and its interaction with the environmental biotic stresses. A number of diverse materials/ treatments at varying doses have been used to increase the rate and uniformity of seedling emergence in many field crops, which are generally categorized for seed enhancement. Seed enhancement may be defined as “post-harvest treatments that improve germination and seedling growth or facilitate the delivery of seeds and other inputs/materials required at the time of sowing smoothly”. Seed enhancement technology predominantly possess a central objective to further improve seed performance by treating with specific additives/chemical/organics/botanicals etc. under very specific regimes and with the aid of certain planting equipments to grow uniform crop obviously to harness higher productivity and production (Halmer, 2006). There are several ways and means to enhance vigour of germinating seedlings while emerging from the seed, which produce a uniform crop stand and finally substantially more yield is achieved by adopting simple techniques.

Liebig (1840) on the basis of soil and plant analysis deduced the phosphorus requirement of plants. J.B. Lawes conducted series of field experiments to improve the fertilizer value of common sources of phosphorus such as bone meal, apatite, rock phosphate. Lawes (1843) produced super phosphate by treating apatite mineral containing phosphorus with sulphuric acid. He also stated that the phosphorus present in bones of higher animals can be made available by treating with sulphuric acid.

Phosphorus is the second most deficient nutrient in the world. Annual application of phosphorus fertilizers to crops is 36 million tons of which

1.32 m tones are consumed in India. Most of the arable soils in tropical and subtropical regions are deficient in phoshphorus, but the response of crops to phosphorus is uncertain. Phosphorus concentration in plants ranges from 0.1 to 0.4 per cent.

7.1 Introduction

Okra is a remunerative vegetable crop for the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Its fresh fruits are important vegetable in India, Brazil, West Africa and many other countries. For year-round consumption sun dried (Africa, India), and frozen and sterilized (USA) fruits are processed from fresh fruits. Tender green fruits are cooked in curry and also used in soups. The root and stem are useful for clearing cane juice in preparation of jaggery. Its ripe seeds are roasted, ground and used as a substitute for coffee in Turkey. Matured fruits and stems containing crude fibre are used in the paper industry. Okra is rich in vitamins, calcium, potassium and other minerals. A 100g consumable unripe okra fruits contain 10.4g dry matter, 3,100 calorie energy, 1.8g protein, 90mg calcium, 1.0mg iron, 0.1mg carotene, 0.07mg thiamin, 0.08mg riboflavin, 0.08mg niacin and 18 mg vitamin C. The dry seeds contain 13-22% edible oil and 20-24% protein. The seed cake is also used as an animal feed. Okra has high iodine content and it has ability to control goiter. Ratoon cropping can also be done in okra.

Introduction 
The overuse of fossil fuels is expanding simultaneously with society’s rapid development, which culminates in a decrease in fossil energy and a very serious deterioration of the environment. The purpose is to make the carbon neutral as fast as possible, which will make the invention of alternative energy sources to replace the fossil fuels. To make world a better place to live, fossil energy is highly needed to be conserved and measures should be made to limit the use of fossil energy. After many researches, the alternate to fossil energy has been made in the form of “BIODIESEL”. Biodiesel, which is produced from renewable resources such as vegetable oil is a new clean alternative to fossil fuel. Biodiesel in the new era of scientific field is mainly produced from Microalgae. Production of biodiesel from microalgae ensures reusing carbon resources from nature. This method contributes to achieve in replacing petroleum use and also helps in reducing pollution in the environment. Biodiesel consist primarily of esters which is formed by methanol or by ethanol and long chains of fatty acids which may be saturated or unsaturated such as palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid and linoleic acid. This is the main and ultimate reason why production and use of biodiesel is attracted the attention of researches worldwide. The biodiesel is developed in three generations that is First, Second and Third generation Microalgae are single-celled organisms which are microscopic. They are an essential component of carbon cycle and they can exploit carbon sources in water and soil efficiently and have plenty of advantages over the other biodiesel sources that are conventional oil crops such as wheat, palm, corns, soybeans, maize and rapeseed. In this century, one of the most important environmental issues is global warming, that is caused by released of greenhouse gases. These microalgae have high rates of biomass production and can survive in a variety of circumstances, such as freshwater, saltwater, and wastewater (Muhammad Abdullah et.al 2024) Their ability to be grown on non-arable ground and their lack of resources competition with food crops are two of their most significant and crucial advantages. The process of producing biodiesel from the microalgae involves many stages. The stepwise structure involves lipid extraction, microalgae cell disruption, harvesting, culture and transesterification. Microalgae re a promising source of biodiesel as they have a high lipid content and can grow quickly. But they are complex in composition and they require a specialized harvesting system. Nanoparticles are an ultrafine unit and have dimensions which are stated in nanometers. These nanoparticles can be detected in the natural environment and can also be generated by human activity. Because of their sub-microscopic size, they boast unique material properties and may be used in many different kinds of fields, namely environmental remediation, engineering and medical care. In 2008, International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defined this nanoparticle as a discrete nano-object in which all the Cartesian dimensions are less than 100nm. Nanoparticles are classified into different types according to their shape,

ABSTRACT

Scattered trees/shrubs in agricultural fields or grazing fields are common features of landscape in arid regions of India. These trees were considered as insurance to the people during drought years. In recent past importance of these trees in such areas had been recognized by the scientific world. Lot of research had been made and is continuing to identify and research the tree-crop combination. This paper reviews the tested agroforestry systems in arid region of country with particular reference to Rajasthan. Economic gains due to technology intervention in agroforestry system is also given.

INTRODUCTION

The people in the arid regions of India, since time immemorial has developed location specific agroforestry systems. The scattered trees / shrubs in the agricultural fields or grazing fields are common features of the landscape. Since the beginning of cultivation the farmers deliberately allow the trees /shrubs to grow with the crops. They have screened the trees / shrubs based on their utility. They have considered that these trees are insurance to them during drought years. These trees provided lean period fodder, fruits, vegetable, timber, fuel, fiber etc. as farmers knew that occurrence of drought is common phenomenon in Rajasthan and due to failure of rains the crops failed to grow or their production is abysmally low. In the recent past efforts have been made to identify existing agroforestry systems for different agro-ecological zones (Malhotra, 1984 ; Harsh et al., 1992 ; Saxena, 1997). Efforts have also been made to study the production systems under each agroforestry systems and also to improve the existing systems through technological interventions (Harsh and Tewari, 2003; Tewari et al., 2004; Harsh et al., 2004).

Logical Framework Approach (LFA) is a framework for designing change process, monitoring progress and evaluating impact. It is a powerful tool for project design, management, assessment, follow up and evaluation of projects. In designing change process, monitoring progress and evaluating impact, ordering the change process in a logical sequence where inputs or resources identify as necessary means for performing activities are very important. Specific activities are then identified because they result in outputs which are necessary to achieve objectives. The two terms i.e.; log frame and logical framework approach are sometimes confused by many. The log frame is a document whereas the logical framework approach is a project design methodology. LFA originally developed by the American Defense Department and was first formally adopted as a planning tool for United State Agency for International Development (USAID) by the end of 1960’s and today it is being used, in one form or other and with different names, by major organisations in the field of development co-operation and private industry. Among these are British DFID, the OECD expert group on Aid Evaluation, ISNAR International Service for National Agricultural Research, Germany’s GTZ and the Inter-American Development Bank. It has also been widely adopted by NGOs, though not without reservations and concerns by some. In the 1990s it was often mandatory for aid organisations to use the LFA in their project proposals.

Plant tissue culture is the cultivation of plant cells, tissues, or organs on specially formulated nutrients media under the right environmental conditions. A whole plant can be regenerated from a single cell. The history of plant tissue culture has been long and started with Haberlandt in 1902 when he proposed the culture of single plant cells, his experimentation never resulted in success. White (1943) became successful in culturing plant cells for the first time, however, Morel (1960) at the Institut National Recherche Agronomique in Versailles near Paris was first to demonstrate meristem culture technology. He successfully introduced tissue culture technology to the orchid industry and produced disease-free plants of grape. By the 1970s, plant tissue culture had become a formidable technology. Plant tissue culture technique has been around for more than 30 years and considered as an important straightforward technology for the production of disease-free high quality planting material and the rapid production of many uniform plants. Its application requires a sterile workplace, nursery, greenhouse and trained manpower.

Plant tissue culturing techniques have been especially important in the agricultural community over the past many years. During this time, plant tissue culture has effectively moved from the confines of small laboratories and has taken its place among broad scale techniques employed by agricultural industry.

Pulses in India are considered a residual crop and grown under rainfed conditions in marginal/ less fertile lands. About 90 percent of total pulse production comes from 97 million ha of rainfed areas in our country. Presently, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan contribute 85% of the total area and production of pulses in the country. Pulse crops usually face soil water deficits sometime during their growth cycles. Thus, drought stress is a common phenomenon and ranks high among all abiotic stresseslimiting yields of pulses (Ali and Mishra, 2000). Hence, there is an urgent need to increase the pulse productivity to increase the income of farmers and reduce malnutrition. Productivityof pulsesin rainfed agriculture has remainedlowand unstable owing to climate and soil related constraints (Swindale, 1982). Soil moisture is the foremost factor that determines the productivity of rainfed pulses where rainfall is the only source of water. To maintain required soil moisture in rainfed lands, every action must be focused to conserveas much quantity of rainfall in the soil as possible (Rao, 1997). Unfortunately, farmers following rainfed agriculture in our country are not practicing any sort of moisture management techniques though wehaveahandful of techniques suitable for rainfed conditions.

INTRODUCTION

Information is power in the present age of rapid technological innovations; since information technology (IT) empowers people. IT emerged as the major driver of growth in all walks of life during last quarter of 20^th century and is currently in a steady growth trajectory. It encompasses almost all human endeavors including agriculture. IT can facilitate agriculture in two broad ways; (i) as a tool for direct contribution to agricultural productivity and (ii) as an indirect tool for empowering farmers to take informed and quality decisions which will have positive impact on the way agriculture and allied activities are conducted. Precision farming extensively uses IT to make direct contribution to agricultural productivity. The indirect benefits of IT in empowering Indian farmer are significant and remains to be exploited. The emerging scenario of a deregulated agriculture under WTO has brought about a greater ‘need’ and urgency to make IT an integral part of decision making by agriculture sector. The changing environment faced by Indian farmers makes information not merely useful, but necessary to remain competitive. The farmer urgently requires timely and reliable sources of information inputs for taking decisions. At present, the farmer depends on trickling down of decision inputs from conventional sources, which are slow and unreliable. Besides, the personnel who work for the welfare of Indian farmers, such as extension workers, do not have access to latest information, which hinders their ability to serve the farming community effectively. IT will constitute the primary resource in agri-clinics, agri-business centers, kisan call centers, agri-nukkads, etc. that have been launched by Government of India and other organizations to ensure inclusive growth. Potato is an input-intensive crop and IT will have a special role in making its cultivation more productive and profitable.

Introduction

The apple (Malus domestica), a valuable and economically significant crop, is grown in India’s northwestern Himalayan region. After Orange, Banana, and Grape, it is the fourth most widely grown fruit worldwide. The tree is native to Central Asia, where its wild ancestor Malus sieversii is still found today. Apples have been cultivated in Asia and Europe for thousands of years. The world’s largest apple grower is China and in India it is grown in the hills of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu & Kashmir in India. The average summer temperature during the active period is about 21-24°C growing season. Apple does this best in areas where trees are dormant. The color development will be better in winter when plenty of sunlight hits. It is possible even at an altitude of 1500 -2700 meters from sea level. 1000-1250 mm well distributed rainfall during the growing season which is most suitable for optimal growth and fertility of apple trees.