eChapters

Okra is predominantly a crop of tropics and subtropics.  It occupies fifth position, next to tomato, in area under vegetables in the country with a production of 33.24 lakh metric tonnes from an area of 3.47 lakh hectares.  The crop is cultivated for its young tender fruits, used in curry and soups after cooking. It is a good source of vitamins A and B, protein and minerals. It is also an excellent source of iodine and is useful for the treatment of goitre.  Fruit is useful against genito-urinary disorders, spermetorrhoea and chronic dysentery. Fruits are also dried or frozen for use during off-season.  Dried fruit contain 13-22% edible oil and 20-24% protein and is used for refined edible oil.  Dry fruit skin and fibres are used in manufacture of paper, card board and fibres.  Root and stem are used for clearing cane juice for preparation of jaggary.

Okra [(Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench] is one of the traditional vegetable crop cultivated in tropical, subtropical and warmer regions of the world. Okra fruits are rich in calcium (90 mg/100 g fresh weight) and provide valuable supplementary items in the tropical diet which is starchy in nature lacking calcium and iron. The root and stem are used for clearing cane juice in preparation of jaggery or ‘gur’. The high iodine content of fruits helps prevent goiter, while leaves are used in inflammation and dysentery. It has yet multiple uses. The dry seed contains 13-22 % good edible oil and 20-24 % protein. The oil is used in soap, cosmetic industry and as vanaspati, while protein is used for fortified feed preparations. The crushed seed is fed to cattle for increasing the milk production and the fibre is utilized in jute, textile and paper industries. India ranks first in the world with 7.16 million tonnes of production 5.49 lakh hectares of area. Gujarat is the leading okra-producing state which produces around 1147.66 thousand tonnes from an area of 93.95 thousand hectares followed by West Bengal. Fresh fruit of okra is exported to UAE, Sri Lanka, the Netherlands, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Nepal, UK, Saudi Arabia and Qatar. The national average productivity is very low (11.70 t/ha), that the crop is prone to damage by major biotic stresses like fungus, nematodes and viruses like Yellow Vein Mosaic Virus and Enation Leaf Curl Virus. The yield potential of okra is low; however, it could be improved through hybridization. Marked heterosis has been reported in okra for yield and its components.

Okra, Abelmoschus esculentus under the family Malvaceae (Chromosome No.: 2n 126, 130, 132, 144) is an important vegetable in the tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world. Okra is mainly used for its tender green fruits as vegetable in many countries. In India, tender fruits are used as fried and boiled or in curry and sambar. It is also frozen, dehydrated and canned. Tender fruit contains appreciably high potassium, vitamin B, vitamin C, folic acid and calcium. It is a popular vegetable crop of low in calories and high in dietary fibre and protein contents, rich in essential amino acids, lysine and tryptophan.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
Okra has been regarded as of African origin. Perhaps it has been originated in Ethiopia and upper Nile region of Sudan. However, according to Zeven and Zhukovsky (1975), the genus Abelmoschus is considered to be of Asiatic origin. In fact, its cytotaxonomy confused that Abelmoschus might be of Asiatic origin and at least part of the cultigen. Joshi and Hardas (1976) believed that either the cultigen might have originated in Asia or it was present in Africa and India as a polyphyletic species. Significant native diversity of okra and its allied species in India points towards its secondary diversity here. Indian geneticists and cytologists reported that the wild relative A. tuberculatus which grows wild in India is one of the ancestors of cultivated okra, A. esculentus which is considered to be a natural amphidiploid species. Okra has been mentioned in ancient Sanskrit literature in the name “tindisha” and “gandhamula” which indicated very old association of this genus and its different species with India.

A family of approximately 29 genera and 600 species, Oleaceae are cosmopolitan but occur in great diversity in temperature and tropical Asia. Some of the largely represented genera of olive family and their approximately
reported species are Jasminum (300), Chionanthus (125), Linociera (80), Fraxinus (70), Ligustrum (40), Syringa (30) and Olea (20).
Genus Jasminum contains 90 species to be true in existence and use, range from landscape to hair adornments, and perfumes. It is native to Indo-Malayan region. Morphological variants from different species have been developed in different regions in India. Jasmines are one of the most important ornamental flowering plants, widely cultivated for their attractive and fragrant flowers. Jasmine has multiple uses like in the making of bouquets, garlands, decorating women’s hair as veni, beautifying pandals and marriage halls and the like, besides preparation of perfumes and cosmetics. Jasminum grandiflorum is highly priced for high grade perfumes throughout the world. Jasmine oil has a significant place as an ingredient in cosmetics, confectionary, ointments, disinfectants and detergents and in pharmaceutical beverages. The word ‘jasmine’ has been derived from a Persian name ‘Yasmun’ meaning fragrance.

Plant oleoresins, often referred to as resins, are sticky plant secretions synthesized in large quantities by about 10 % of plant families. Resin is secreted when a plant is disturbed and the sticky substances produced contain many toxic compounds used to defend the plant from herbivores and pathogens. A major component of resin is the terpenoid compounds. Although terpenoid compounds can be quite complex, they are all composed of five-carbon units, with an isoprene unit as the base. The simplest of these terpenes are the monoterpenes that possess 10- carbon atoms derived from two fused isoprene units. Monoterpenes are an important component of the volatile portion of terpenes and often emit very strong odors.

Characters

Mouthparts biting type

Wing venation usually well developed with numerous cross veins.

Cerci present

Oligosaccharides comprise 2 to 10 units of monosaccharide molecules, which are released upon hydrolysis. The oligosaccharides are classified depending upon the number of monosaccharide units, e.g., Disaccharides (two monosaccharide units), Trisaccharides (three monosaccharide units), Tetrasaccharides (four monosaccharide units). Disaccharides are the most common oligosaccharides found in nature.
4.1 Disaccharides
Disaccharides are formed when glycosidic linkages covalently bond two monosaccharides together. A glycosidic bond is formed when the hydroxyl group on one of the sugars reacts with the monomeric carbon on the second sugar. A glycosidic bond can be alpha or beta, depending on the steric configuration at carbon one on the monosaccharide unit. During the union of two monosaccharide units, water molecules are eliminated (dehydration reaction or condensation reaction, or dehydration synthesis), and the formation of a glycosidic bond occurs, through which the units are linked via an oxygen bridge.

1. Introduction

Olive (Olea eurpaea L.) is an evergreen species commonly grown in the Mediterranean basin. The oil extracted from the fruit is a predominant component of the ‘Mediterranean diet’, which has documented heart- and cancer-protective benefits. These derive from the lipid composition and from biologically active molecules that accumulate during olive fruit development. The oil can reach up to 30% of the total fruit fresh weight at full ripening and is highly present in the mesocarp and at lower levels in seeds. Oil increase reaches a plateau in pulp after varaison. A marked triacylglycerol accumulation in seed and pulp occurs after endocarp lignification, when about 40 mg of oil per fruit per week can be synthesized. The fatty acid profile of the oil accumulating in the fruit is important in relation to its nutritional properties. The main fatty acid is oleic acid (C18:1), which represents about 75% of total fatty acids, followed by linoleic (C18:2), palmitic (C16:0), stearic (C18:0) and linolenic (C18:3) acids (Martinelli and Dandekar, 2014).

The olive, Olea europaea L, is the only species of the botanical family Oleaceae with edible fruit. The tree blooms with small white flowers in May, and fruit set begins almost immediately afterward in May or June. Ripening is complete toward the end of November or December, depending on the variety. Its cultivation began more than 6000 years ago in the Middle East, and spread west on both sides of the Mediterranean Sea.

The olive is native to the Mediterranean region, tropical and central Asia and various parts of Africa. Historically, olive tree was symbol of ‘Peace and Goodwill’. Olive oil has long been considered sacred; it was used to anoint kings and athletes in ancient Greece. It was burnt in the sacred lamps of temples as well as being the “eternal flame” of the original Olympic Games. Olive oil produces many health benefits when used in cooking or when poured over salads. The use of olive oil can improve digestion and can benefit heart metabolism through its low content of cholesterol. Experts claim that olive oil consumption can cause a person to grow shiny hair, prevent dandruff, wrinkles, dry skin and acne, strengthen nails, stop muscle aching, lower blood pressure and cancel out the effects of alcohol. The nutritional value of olives also includes the high vitamin E content. Olives also have high amounts of polyphenols and flavonoids which also act as antioxidants. Apart from this olives are good source of iron, copper, and dietary fiber. 

Genus : Olea 
Species : europaea L.
Family : Oleaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n=2x=46

Amongst the fruit crops, Olive is undoubtedly one of the world’s oldest cultivated crop and its cultivations dates back to 3000 B.C. and till date is recognized as a symbol of peace and prosperity. Olive is an evergreen subtropical plant, but for flowering and fruiting it does require chilling as most of the temperate fruits do. Although slow to grow, olive is a very long lived plant and with its typical dense foliage of olive green and silvery leaves also serves as an ornamental type. The centre of origin includes Palestine, Lebanon, north west Syria and Cyprus. The Greeks and Roman were well aware of the significance of olive oil during 900 to 600 B.C. and oil was considered as a luxury item in body anointment. From its native place olive established itself in the Mediterranean region especially Italy, Spain and from here to other parts of the world.

Olive-scale: Metacernema japonica: Black scale: Saissetia oleae: Coccidae

Olive scales are tiny pale-greyish insects which settle on branches, leaves and fruits and are active during April-November. S. oleae are round greenish brown scales. Nymphs and adults of both the species suck the sap from the tender shoots, and leaf petioles. Sooty-mould appears on leaves and branches of infested plants as a consequence of honeydew secre-tion. Shoots get dried up and fruits remain undersized.

Omega-3 fatty acids, primarily eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are renowned for their anti-inflammatory properties. They modulate inflammation by competing with arachidonic acid, reducing pro-inflammatory eicosanoids, and enhancing anti-inflammatory resolvins and protectins. The optimal supplementation dose varies among animal species due to differences in metabolism, physiology, and dietary requirements.
Dogs
For dogs, omega-3 fatty acids are often used to manage inflammatory conditions like arthritis and dermatitis. Doses of 50-100 mg/kg body weight of combined EPA and DHA are commonly recommended, with variations based on the severity of inflammation and the dog’s health status.
Cats
In cats, omega-3 supplementation is used for similar conditions as in dogs. Typical dose ranges from 30-50 mg/kg body weight of EPA and DHA, taking into account their strict carnivorous diet and specific fatty acid metabolism.
Horses
Horses benefit from omega-3 supplementation in conditions such as osteoarthritis and inflammatory airway disease. The recommended dose is about 4-6 g of combined EPA and DHA per day for an average-sized horse (~500 kg). Flaxseed oil, rich in alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), is also commonly used, although its conversion to EPA and DHA is limited.

Introduction

Aquaculture stands as the swiftest expanding sector within the food industry, with an escalating per capita consumption of fish-derived animal protein. India, as the world's third-largest fish producer, contributes significantly to this trend, boasting a fish production of 16.24 million tons, which corresponds to 8% of the global fish production. Nevertheless, several challenges persist and must be addressed, including the absence of species-specific or functional feeds, the dearth of genetically modified strains or breeds, the availability of high-quality fish species, and the rising incidence of fish diseases. Recent strides in "omics" technologies have furnished a potent toolkit and conceptual framework that enables the comprehensive dissection of the phenotypic and functional networks of genes and proteins within cells or organisms (Mohanty et al., 2019). This innovative research domain has spawned technological advancements that harness the power of "omics" to scrutinize diverse biological systems (Ning and Lo, 2010). The integration of "omics" in aquaculture research has effectively surmounted numerous challenges related to production and reproduction, thereby ensuring its relevance and economic viability. This technology empowers researchers to analyze an array of molecules on a massive scale, marking an early and groundbreaking technological leap forward in this field.

Abstract

There has been consistent narrowing down of gap in our knowledge about various ‘omics’ as the omics’ based disciplines are filled with valuable information emerging from research. During the last two decades, the practice of genetics has not only changed the broad horizons of medicine but also found its niche through “high-dimensional biology” there by allowing geneticists to reframe the good-old definition of gene from a locatable region of genome sequence involved in heritability to a locatable region of genome sequence associated with a functional region or a functor. Various other scientists viewed genetics ‘‘as the study of single genes and their effects’’ and genomics as ‘‘the study not just of single genes, but of the functions and interactions of all the genes in the genome.’’ We will cover the qualitative difference that bridges various disciplines casing Omics.

Abstract

Omics arise from ome which means complete or totality. It refers to the collection of technologies used to investigate the roles, relationships, and actions of the various types of molecules that make up an organism’s cells. Omics technologies provide the tools required to investigate differences in DNA, RNA, proteins, and other cellular molecules between species and individuals within a species. These technologies comprise, genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, ionomics, glycomics, lipomics, cultureomics, pharmacogenomics, metagenomics, foodomics, eigenomics, phenomics, etc. The inclusion of all omics domain is known as multiomics. In this chapter we describe from basic, type structure of omics to all the recent cutting edge technologies in multiomics.

Etiology

Mostly associated with bacterial infections. Salmonella sp, Escherichia coli, streptococcus fecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridia sp. (C. pefringens), Pseudomonas and Proteus spp. have been isolated from cases of omphalitis. Chilling, overheating or stress during transport may predispose for the condition.

Inflammation of yolk sac, characterized by infected unhealed navels in young birds.

ABSTRACT

Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia Andrews) is a high value spice crop having immense potential for cultivation in India as a source for natural vanillin. Though the crop was introduced way back in 1835, its cultivation gained momentum only in the recent past due to various reasons. Lack of sufficient good quality planting materials is one of the constraints for expanding the area under the crop. Conventionally vanilla is propagated by vine cuttings, but this method is inadequate to have large number of planting materials in a short span of time. So, micropropagation was attempted and proved to be highly successful. In the present study, performance of vanilla plants raised from tissue culture plantlets and vegetative cuttings was assessed on large-scale in planters’ field covering a total area of 111 ha in Kerala(68ha), Karnataka(28ha) and Tamilnadu(15ha) with the financial assistance of the Department of Biotechnology, New Delhi under the project entitled “Tissue culture Vanilla : Product Plan“. Disease free elite accessions of vanilla identified by the Indian Cardamom Research Institute (Spices Board), Myladumpara from its germplasm repository were used as mother plant source for tissue culture multiplication and also for raising the nursery for producing vegetative cuttings. The field planting for the demonstration plots was carried out during 1996-1999 on a cluster approach basis having 400 plants in each unit or plot of 0.25 ha. Accordingly a total of 444 evaluation plots were laid out under the project covering the aforesaid three states. Out of the 400 plants in a plot, 80% were nursery hardened grown up tissue culture plants and the balance( 20% )vegetative cuttings of comparable length. Observations on growth and yield attributes such as vine length, number of leaves per vine, internodal length, number of beans per vine, bean size, yield etc. revealed that performance of tissue culture plants is on par with that of conventional plants raised from vegetative cuttings of comparable length. It is also observed that if good management practices are adopted, tissue culture plants perform better at the full bearing stage of the plant. This proves that tissue culture plants of vanilla can be popularized as a cost effective and faster source of planting materials compared to conventional vegetative cuttings. As the demonstration plots were distributed under varied agroclimatic situations, the influence of different weather parameters on yield was also ascertained. Further, the project could convince the farmers about the comparable performance of tissue culture plants and that is quite evident from the ever increasing request for tissue culture vanilla plants received by the Spices Board.

INTRODUCTION

Traditional knowledge is the knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities around the world. Developed from experience gained over centuries and adapted to the local culture and environment, it is transmitted orally from generation to generation. It tends to be collectively owned and takes the form of stories, songs, folklore, proverbs, cultural values, beliefs, rituals, community laws, local language. Sometimes it is referred to as an oral tradition for it is practiced, sung, danced, painted, carved, chanted and performed down through millennia. Traditional knowledge is mainly of a practical nature, particularly in such fields as fisheries, health, horticulture, forestry and environmental management in general. Appreciation of the value of traditional knowledge is growing. This knowledge is valuable not only to those who depend on it in their daily lives, but to modern industry and farming as well. Many widely used products, such as plant-based medicines, health products and cosmetics, are derived from traditional knowledge. Other such valuable products include agricultural and non-wood forest products as well as handicraft. Traditional knowledge can make a significant contribution to sustainable development.

This chapter investigates the ergonomic design of transportation systems, including cars, buses, bicycles and other modes of mobility. It explains how seating, posture, visibility, controls, displays, vibration and environmental conditions shape the physical and cognitive experience of travel. Vehicle components should accommodate a wide range of body dimensions while maintaining neutral posture and convenient access to essential controls. Adjustable seating, lumbar support, suitable padding and appropriate joint angles are discussed as measures for reducing fatigue and spinal loading. The chapter also examines sensory feedback, information presentation and mobility-related technologies. Its central argument is that human-centred transportation design makes journeys safer, more comfortable, intuitive and accessible.

On-farm feed formulation involves preparing nutritionally balanced rations for livestock using locally available ingredients, while keeping in mind the animals’ dietary needs and the cost-effectiveness of components. This can be done either manually or through mathematical methods such as linear programming. Key elements of the process include understanding animal nutrient requirements, the nutritional profile of ingredients, and using tools like Pearson’s square for precise formulation.
This practice is a core aspect of natural feed management, enabling farmers to create customized feed mixes with natural, locally sourced inputs. It significantly reduces reliance on commercial feeds, lowers production costs, and promotes principles of ecological balance and self-reliance integral to natural farming systems. The aim is to meet the dietary needs of various livestock species—such as cattle, buffaloes, goats, poultry, and fish—during different life stages like growth, lactation, reproduction, and maintenance, using only natural, chemical-free components.
Frequently used natural ingredients include the folloning:
• Cereal Grains: Maize, sorghum, pearl millet, rice bran (as energy providers)
• Oilseed Cakes: Groundnut, mustard, sesame (for protein)
• Pulse Residues: Broken pulses and husks (rich in digestible protein)
• Green Forages: Moringa, lucerne, subabul, cowpea (sources of vitamins and minerals)
• Minerals: Rock salt, lime powder, ash, crushed bones or eggshells
• Natural Additives: Neem leaves, garlic, turmeric, and fenugreek (for health and digestion)
Common techniques in feed Formulation are as bollows:
• Mixing ingredients manually in proportions suited to the animal’s requirements
• Enhancing digestion and microbial activity using Jeevamrit or other fermented inputs