eChapters

7.1 Introduction

A biodiesel fuel is an environmentally friendly, renewable, biodegradable fuel that is produced at domestic facilities from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled grease from restaurants. In accordance with the Renewable Fuel Standard, biodiesel meets the requirements for biomass-based diesel as well as the requirements for advanced biofuels as a whole. Biodiesel is distinct from renewable diesel, also known as “green diesel.” In its pure, unblended form, biodiesel is also known as B100 or neat biodiesel. Biodiesel is used to fuel compression-ignition engines in the same way as petroleum diesel. Alternatively, biodiesel is a liquid biofuel that can be used in diesel engines alone or blended with diesel oil. The fuel is obtained through the chemical conversion of vegetable oils or animal fats combined with alcohol.

11.1 Biodiesel Chemistry

Biodiesel is a mixture of methyl esters of long chain fatty acids like lauric, palmitic, stearic, oleic and so on. It is produced by the transesterification of animal fats and vegetable oils – all of which belong to a group of organic esters called triglycerides. Typical examples are rape/canola oil, soyabean oil, sunflower oil, palm oil and its derivatives, etc. from vegetable sources, beef and sheep tallow and poultry oil from animal sources and also from used cooking oil. The chemistry is basically the same irrespective of the feedstock. The chemistry of biodiesel is given in Fig. 11.1.

Introduction

In 1990, the magnitude of fungal diversity, that is, the actual number of species worldwide, was estimated conservatively to be at least 1.5 million. Of the 1.5 million estimated fungi, it has been estimated that 14,000 species produce fruiting bodies of sufficient size and suitable structure to be considered macro-fungi which can be called mushrooms. Of these, about 50 % or 7,000 species are considered to possess varying degrees of edibility and more than 3,000 species from 31 genera are regarded as prime edible mushrooms. To date, only 200 of them are experimentally grown, 100 economically cultivated, approximately 60 commercially cultivated and about 10 have reached an industrial scale of production in many countries (Hawksworth, 2001). Of the 14,000 species of mushrooms in the world, around 700 have known for medicinal properties. Thus, mushrooms have vast prospects as sources of medicines. The early herbalists were more interested in the medicinal properties of mushrooms than in their basic value as a source of food. Humankind has constantly searched for new substances that can improve biological functions and thereby make people fitter and healthier. About 3.5 billion people worldwide, all over half of the world populations rely on plant-based medicines and dietary supplements for their primary health care. Of the plant materials involved in medicines or health tonics, quite a few are fungi. The practice of using fungi as herbal medicines can be traced in different early records of the ‘materia medica’. The earliest book on medicinal materials the “Shen Nongs Herbal” recorded the medicinal effects of several fungi such as Ganoderma lucidum, Poria cocos, Tremella fuciformis, Polyporus umbillatus and other unidentified fungi. The most famous of all work on the traditional medicines “Pen Ts’ao Kang Mu” which was compiled by Li Shi-Zhen of the Ming Dynasty recorded the medicinal fungi totaling more than twenty species, including Ganoderma lucidum, Poria cocos, Polyporus umbellatus, Lentinula edodes, Termitomyces albuminosus, Auricularia auricula, Pleurotus ostreatus, Armillaria mellea etc. A very unique insect-infecting fungus, Cordyceps sinensis, was for the first time taken as a medicinal fungus in the book “Essentials of Materia Medica”. There have been new discoveries and developments in the field of medicinal fungi, which have greatly enriched the treasure house of our traditional medical and medicinal sciences. As a result of large number of scientific studies on medicinal mushrooms in the past three decades, the traditional uses of many mushrooms have been confirmed and new wider uses found. Some traditionally important and leading medicinal fungi in the Oriental medicines are presented below

Abstract

Irrigation tanks (Traditional water harvesting structures) are our heritage handed over to us by our ancestors and are the lifelines of villages. Tanks are small irrigation structures predominantly serve small and marginal farming communities to sustain the agriculture production by supplementing the monsoon rains. There will be festivities in the villages if its irrigation tanks get filled. A proper maintenance of the tanks will prevent famine, starvation and unemployment and bring in prosperity. In most of the Southern states in India, the major threats to tanks are mainly from the encroachers, inefficiency in the functioning of tank system and improper use by the government itself. Tank irrigation in Andhra Pradesh has played a vital role in the development of its agricultural economy. There are around 79,000 small and minor irrigation tanks providing water for irrigation and domestic use, supporting grazing land, fuel wood growth and ground water recharge. Many of these tanks are hydrologically linked in chains (called tank cascades) that cut across administrative boundaries. With deteriorating tank systems, marginal and small farmers are increasingly at the mercy of monsoon and are forced into a cycle of deprivation and debt. These ancient irrigation systems still function as a crucial element in supplying water for agriculture, and they constitute one of the richest sources of wetland biodiversity in the country. A tank system in a cascade has a small reservoir catchment, the reservoir, a strip of trees downstream of the reservoir that act as wind-breaking barrier, paddy fields, and the village. The village tanks play significant role in food production sector and provide employment in the rural sector. In addition to providing irrigation water, the tanks made the micro-climate pleasant and cool, provided a rich biodiversity and agro-biodiversity

Anacardium occidentale is a medium-sized tree, spreading, and evergreen, much branched; grows to a height of 12 m. When grown on lateritic, gravelly, coastal sandy areas, it rarely exceeds 6 m and develops a spreading habit and globose shape with crown diameter to 12 m but, if grown inland on loams; it reaches 15 m tall and is much branched, with a smaller (4-6 m) crown diameter. The root system of a mature A. occidentale, when grown from the seed, consists of a very prominent taproot and a well developed and extensive network of lateral and sinker roots. Leaves simple, alternate, coriaceous, glabrous, obovate, rounded at ends, 10-18 x 8-15 cm, with short petiole, pale green or reddish when young and dark green at mature. Rai and Vatsala (1985) studied the dermal morphology and stomatal ontogeny of Spondias pinnata Kurz., Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr., Anacardium occidentale L., Holigarna arnottiana Hook. F. and Mangifera indica L. are studied. The cuticle is thick in H. arnottiana, A. occidentale and M. indica, but is thin in S. pinnata and L. coromandelica. Based on the shape of epidermal cells, the five species are categorised into three: cells in both upper and lower epidermis sinuous (A. occidentale, H. arnottiana, S. pinnata); upper sinuous and lower polygonal (M. indica) and upper polygonal and lower sinuous (L. coromandelica). Stomatal ontogeny aperigenous (L. coromandelica), paramesoperigenous (A. occidentale) and anisomesogenous (M. indica, H. arnottiana). S. pinnata is peculiar in that it possesses three different types of stomata, aperigenous, hemiparamesoperigenous and paramesoperigenous; whereas, in all the other four species, only one type of stomatal ontogenesis exists. Except S. pinnata, all the other species possess epidermal appendages. Unicellular trichomes occur in A. occidentale and H. arnottiana, and multicellular glandular trichomes in A. occidentale, M. indica and L. coromandelica. The multicellular hairs are found in A. occidentale in specialized pockets in two rows on either side of the major veins - a unique feature which is reported for the first time.

The word biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms (flora and fauna). Biodiversity or Biological diversity is defined as the variability among all living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are part. Wilson, 1988 defined ‘Biological diversity’ or ‘biodiversity’ as that part of nature which includes the differences in genes among the individuals of a species, the variety and richness of all the plant and animal species at different scales in space i.e. local, regional, country wise and global, andvarious types of ecosystems- both terrestrial and aquatic-within a defined area.

The diversity of agro-ecosystems

Biological diversity deals with the degree of nature’s variety in the biosphere. This variety can be observed at three levels i.e., genetic, species and ecosystem.

a) Genetic Diversity

Genetic diversity refers to the variation at the level of individual genes. Tremendous amount of genetic diversity exists within individual species. This genetic variability is responsible for the different characters in species. Genetic diversity is the raw material from which new species arise through evolution. Today, the genetic diversity is made use to breed new crop varieties, disease resistant crops.

Organic producers, on the other hand, are looking for varieties that are suited to their local climatic and soil conditions and are not susceptible to disease and pest attack. Research has shown that in general these characteristics are more likely to be found in the older native cultivars. For example, conventional wheat grown in an organic system will have reduced protein content, whereas the selection of a variety suitable for the particular growing conditions will provide higher protein, and thus higher baking quality wheat to be grown. Research has also indicated that yields and disease resistance are better in native cultivars as opposed to modern varieties for vegetables (tomato, cucumber and melon) grown in an organic system.

Biodiversity provides the building blocks for sustainable food, health and livelihood security systems. It is the feedstock for both the biotechnology industry and a climate-resilient farming system. Because of its importance for human well-being and survival, a Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was adopted at the UN Conference on Environment and Development held at Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The Convention’s triple goals are conservation, sustainable use, and equitable sharing of benefits. CBD defines biological diversity as follows:

Variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.

Sustainability does not denote a fixed state of things. It is a dynamic phenomenon: a phenomenon that tends to advance towards a higher state of being. The range of a journey of sustainability extends from nothing to everything, from a simple system to a more complex system, or from an unstable or less stable system to a stable or more stable system. Speaking in ecological terms, the transformation of unproductive desert land into a forest in ecological climax over time is how the phenomenon of sustainability works.

The term ‘sustainable development’ was first of all used in 1980 in the World Conservation Strategy (IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980). However, this term was brought into the focus of the world for the first time in the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) Report, popularly known as the Brundtland Commission Report Our Common Future in 1987. Sustainable Development in the WCED Report has been defined as Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs.

Demographic explosion, environment pollution, habitat destruction, enlarging ecological footprint, widespread hunger and unsustainable lifestyles, and potential adverse changes in climate all threaten the future of human food, water, health and livelihood security systems. 2010 appears to mark the beginning of uncertain weather patterns and extreme climate behaviour. Events like temperature rise, drought, flood, coastal storms and rise in sea level are likely to present new challenges to the public, professionals and policy makers. Biodiversity has so far served as the feedstock for sustainable food and health security and can play a similar role in the development of climate-resilient farming and livelihood systems. Biodiversity is also the feedstock for the biotechnology industry. Unfortunately, genetic erosion and species extinction are now occurring at an accelerated pace due to habitat destruction, alien species invasion and spread of agricultural systems characterised by genetic homogeneity. Genetic homogeneity increases genetic vulnerability to biotic and abiotic stresses. To generate widespread interest in biodiversity conservation, the UN General Assembly has declared 2010 as the International Year of Biodiversity.

The history of evolution reveals that life on Earth has gradually gone enriching itself by adding more and more varieties to it. A variety of organisms as of today exhilaratingly blossoms in the biosphere. The organisms are divided into three broad categories based on their distinctive characteristics, viz. plants, animals, and microorganisms. The other broad categories all the organisms on Earth are placed in are the five kingdoms, viz. Protista, Monera, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. These kingdoms encompass living organisms based on their cell type (prokaryotic or eukaryotic), cell number (unicellular or multicellular), genetic recombination type (binary fission, asexual or sexual type), or feeding behavior or mode of nourishment (autotrophic or heterotrophic).

Biodiversity, coined by W. G. Rosen in 1985, is the variety of life on Earth. It is the occurrence of different kinds of organisms and the complete range of varieties adapted to different climates, environments and areas being constituents of food chains and food web of biotic interrelationship. Biodiversity refers to totality of genes species and ecosystems of a region. Biodiversity differs from place to place. Biodiversity is the biological wealth of world.

There is continuous depletion of biodiversity due to increasing population resources consumption, urbanization and pollution. The basic reason for concern is that biodiversity is being lost even before it attains its size. Loss of biodiversity would check evolutionary capability of biota to cope up with environmental loss.

INTRODUCTION

Biodiversity  refers to varieties of life on the Earth including  animals, plants, microbes and genes within them, their habitats and ecosystems and all variations within a given ecosystem, biome or entire planet. Biodiversity is the basis of life on Earth, important for the functioning of ecosystems, provides us with products and services without which we cannot live. Consider our food range in India. It ranges from Indian bread (chapatti), rice and rice products and related curries and other varieties made out of different vegetables. These food items are made of wheat, paddy, maize, bajra, ragi, potato, tapioca, sweet potato,  yams and corns, pulses like pigeon pea, green and black gram, Bengal gram, soyabean, vegetables like tomato, brinjal, cucumber, pumpkin, drum stick, bitter gourd, snake gourd, bottle gourd and various gourds, French bean, amaranth and  so many leafy  vegetables, spices and condiments like chilly, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, pepper, nutmeg, clove, cinnamon, cumin, coriander, fenugreek etc. This is the diversity of food we have in India. Similarly, all other groups such as herbal medicine, ornamentals, timber and non-timber species are also very diverse.

Most of the ecosystems prevailing on Earth have ceased to be virgin. They are now modified following anthropogenic designs. The Blossoming of a community in its climax stage is a rare sight. As human intervention with nature has gone on increasing, all types of biodiversity - genetic, species and community, and alpha, beta, and gamma - have been put under stress. The Earth has already lost much of its diversity due to anthropogenic factors and now it seems to be under severe stress due to climate change, which is also largely due to human-induced environmental disruptions.

Continuous loss of biodiversity at an alarming rate is posing a serious threat to life on earth. With this dismal state of the environment, we cannot usher in a sustainable future. We do not have the right to snatch the future from our younger generations. The Earth belongs to our children more than it does to us. The Earth belongs to future generations more than it does to present generations. Conservation of biodiversity is a matter of ethics. Ethics has the human face of biodiversity. Economic attributes of biodiversity have importance, but ethics of life 

The term biodiversity is abbreviated from two different terms ‘biological’ and ‘diversity’. Biodiversity is also called biological diversity. The term biological diversity was first coined by wildlife scientist and conservationist Raymond F. Dasmann in 1968. The same term i.e. natural heritage was used in the United State. Geneticists describe it as the diversity of genes and organisms. Biologists define biodiversity as the sum of genes, species and ecosystems of a region.

Biodiversity is determined by the wholesome number of different species in a particular area. It helps to strengthen the stability of an ecosystem and leads to a healthy biosphere. Existence of biodiversity is crucial for the functioning of the ecosystem and is the foundation of life on earth as it generates products and services for the existence of all living organisms on the earth.

Biodiversity

Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is the scientific term for the variety of life on Earth. It refers not just to species but also to ecosystems and differences in genes within a single species. Everywhere on the planet, species live together and depend on one another. Every living thing, including man, is involved in these complex networks of interdependent relationships, which are called ecosystems. Healthy ecosystems clean our water, purify our air, maintain our soil, regulate the climate, recycle nutrients and provide us with food. They provide raw materials and resources for medicines and other purposes. They are at the foundation of all civilisation and sustain our economies. It’s that simple: we could not live without these “ecosystem services”. They are what we call our natural capital.

The term biodiversity is used by Walter and Roses in 1985. Biodiversity means the existence of a large number of different kinds of animals and plants which make a balanced environment. According to “Convocation on biological diversity (1992)”-Biodiversity is present in terrestrial, ocean and aquatic ecosystem. This diversity present in between same species, different species and in different ecosystem.

Biodiversity encompasses the different kinds of life we find in one area— the variety of animals, plants, fungi, and even microorganisms like bacteria that make up our natural world. Each of these species and organisms work together in ecosystems, like an intricate web, to maintain balance and support life. Biodiversity refers to all species and living things on Earth or in a specific ecosystem. Biodiversity brings together the different species and forms of life (animal, plant, entomological and other) and their variability, that is to say, their dynamics of evolution in their ecosystems. Traditionally, there are three levels of biodiversity: genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity. But what does each of these levels really mean.

Abstract

Mushroom has a great potential in India. Its production is gradually increasing at the annual rate of 7%. The total mushroom production in India is 1.13 million tones and on the other hand, mushroom production annually in china is 18.2 million tones. There are a no. 07 wild mushroom available in the world and medicinal properties much as anti Candida, anti tumor (including cervical, uterine, stomach cancer) and antis viral are rotally present. Of the entire wild mushroom tested, T. glolulum has the highest amount of protein, ask, Calcium, phosphorus and iron. A total of 172 wild mushrooms have been reported home NE India and majority of the wild mushroom is of the order Agaricales. There is a need to make a concerted study of the mushroom biodiversity and its use for economic activity.

Abstract

Elaboration of mycotoxins by several moulds in different agricultural commodities has been reported to be widespread. The mycotoxins are reported to cause variety of health hazards in different animals including Chicks, cow, horse, rat, Mouse, pig, rabbit, dog, including man. More than 150 species of moulds are reported to elaborate chemically and biologically diverse toxic metabolites. These mycotoxins  are known to induce variety of diseases commonly known as mycotoxicoses.The fungi which elaborate mycotoxins are diverse belonging to different groups of fungi.Mycotoxigenicity of these moulds not only differ among different genera but also among different species.  Some fungi such as Aspergillus flavus, A. terreus, Penicillium griseofulvum, P.expansum, P.nordicum, P.verrucosum, Fusarium acuminatum, F.culmorum, F. graminearum, F.moniliforme, F.oxysporum, F.solani, F. tricinctum and Cheatomium globosum are known to produce more  one  type of mycotoxin which differ in their chemical structure and biological activity.

Abstract

Studies were carried out on 110 seedling trees of aonla growing at Tikker area of district Sirmaur, Ghanatti area of district Shimla and Kandaghat & Arki areas of district Solan to know the extent of divergence for various fruit characters by using non-hierarchical cluster analysis. Maximum co-efficient of variability was observed for fruit volume (38.63 %). First component gave maximum Eigen root value (7.286) and maximum percent variation (45.54 %). All 110 genotypes got clustered into eight clusters and the distribution of genotypes from different location was random. Maximum genotypes (30) entered in cluster 3 and minimum (5) in cluster 8. Intra-cluster distance varied between 1.877 (Cluster 5) to 3.137 (Cluster 8). The inter-cluster distance ranged between 3.006 (Cluster 3 & 4) to 11.677(Cluster 5 & 8). Wider genetic base is the prerequisite for breeding to get better recombinants and segregants. So, genotypes of Cluster 5 & 8 can be used for future aonla breeding programmes.

Nutrition is the basis for life to prosper and sustain in the biosphere. There are two modes of nutrition in all species: self-nourishment and crossnourishment. Self-nourishment goes on in the category of organisms known as autotrophs. Cross-nutrition is maintained by the category of consumers categorized as heterotrophs. The autotrophs nourish themselves by utilizing inorganic molecules and energy available in nature, while the heterotrophs derive the nutrients that the autotrophs ‘manufacture’ for themselves. In other words, the heterotrophs derive nutrients from organic molecules. These organic molecules are derived either from the autotrophs directly or from the consumers dependent on autotrophs.

Autotrophs derive energy in its free form (e.g. light) or that available in inorganic molecules (e.g., CO, 

Abstract

Our biological heritage, from genes to ecosystems, is threatened on a global scale. Biological species, the prime focus on biodiversity, provide all our basic requirements such as food, medicine, fuel and things for well being, make nature’s sustainability through purifying air and water, pollinating crops, etc. and motivate us at a deep emotional level. During the course of human civilization and consequent urbanization process biological species and environment have been degraded. It is estimated that about 20% of all species are expected to be lost within 30 years and 50% or more by the end of the 21^st century [36]. The current rates of species extinction are 1000–10,000 times higher than the background rate of 10-7 species per year inferred from fossil record. Today, we seem to be losing two to five species per hour from tropical forests alone. This amounts to a loss of 16 m population per year or 1800 populations per hour. This led to biodiversity crisis in the global level [23,26,35] and generated an outpouring of research on biodiversity for the last 25 years. As a result we could have a general understanding about the distribution of biodiversity, the proximate causes (habitat loss, habitat fragmentation, habitat degradation, invasive species, pollution, resource exploitation) contributing to its loss, sketches of the root causes of biodiversity loss, and the outlines of better management policies. Since the establishment of the convention on biological diversity in 1992, conservation of biodiversity has become a priority concern on the international agenda.

1. Introduction

Cold-Arid areas are unique eco-systems lying in the north-western Himalaya. The Himalayan mountain ranges can broadly be grouped in two categories 1) the Himalayan ranges extending to the south of the main range including the greater Himalaya and 2) the trans-Himalayan ranges to the north of it. The cold-arid areas are situated in the Trans-Himalayan ranges which comprise of the Zanskar Range, the Ladakh Range and the Karakoram Range. The Ladakh region is situated in the rain shadow of the Himalaya and is dry and arid. To its south lie the Himalayan mountains, in west lies the Kashmir, in east lies the Tibet and the northern boundaries are flanked by the Karakoram ranges.

The concept of origin of cultivated plants was first developed by A de Candolle and the geographic centres of variability were developed by Vavilov. He identified Asia as a major centre with “Indian centre” of North East region as primary or secondary centre of origin for many crop plants. Plant genetic resources are of great importance as they form the basic raw materials to meet the current and future needs of crop improvement programmes. A wider genetic base, thus, assumes priority in plant breeding research aimed at developing new varieties for increased crop production (Paroda, 1991). This diversity comprises of native landraces, local selections, elite cultivars and wild relatives of crop plants. The collection and conservation of this diversity in a systematic manner is the primary responsibility of all plant genetic resources institutes/centres. The mention of use and cultivation of fruits can be seen in epics like ‘Ramayana’. Plant genetic resources are thus our heritage, which need conservation for posterity. During the long period of domestication, utilization and cultivation, a wide array of fruit crop variability got generated by natural means and through both conscious and unconscious selection. Huge wealth of variability also got generated/adapted and diversified by crop introductions in the exotic environment or through migration of human population.

Introduction

Leafhoppers belong to the family Cicadellidae and constitute one of the largest families in the exopterygotan Hexapoda. Recent estimates of species for the world range between 35,000-45,000 species though little over 22,600 species are now described (Dietrich, 2004a). The leafhoppers belong to the order Hemiptera and suborder Auchenorrhyncha.
 
Leafhoppers can readily be recognized from other members of the Auchenorrhyncha by the presence of two or more rows of spines on hind tibiae and by the pronotum not extending back over abdomen. Their close relative, the Membracidae, have pronotum extending back over the abdomen. From planthoppers (Delphacidae) with which they are often confused, they can be recognized by the position and structure of antennae. The leafhopper antennae are placed between eyes compared to beneath the eyes in planthoppers; the second segment of the antenna (pedicel) is small without externally visible sensillae in leafhoppers compared to enlarged pedicel with prominent sensillae in the planthoppers. The movable large spur at the apex of hind tibia in plant hoppers is absent in the leafhoppers.

INTRODUCTION

Species of the Clupeiformes (Teleostei), commonly known as herrings, shads, menhadens, sardines, anchovies, and their relatives, are a major component of forage fishes in coastal ecosystems and dominate worldwide forage fish landings (Tacon and Metian, 2009a; FAO, 2020). Clupeiformes are globally distributed fishes with having nearly 419 marine, freshwater, and diadromous species (Bloom and Egan, 2018) and they are filter-feeding fishes that form large schools having a diverse group of trophic guilds and habitats (Bloom and Egan, 2018). Additional to providing ecological and economic support, clupeiforms contribute to global food security given their abundance, easy access, and exceptionally high nutrient content (FAO, 2018). In some human communities, clupeiforms comprise the major or the sole protein source (Alder et al., 2008; Mohanty et al., 2019). Historically, clupeiform presence has been associated with persistent human settlement, growth, and survival (Thornton et al., 2010; Levin et al., 2016).

Clupeiform fishes are ecologically diverse and span all aquatic habitats, including coastal and open marine environments, oceanic islands, estuaries, and freshwater rivers and lakes (Whitehead, 1985; Lavoue et al., 2013). Species can be restricted to marine, estuarine, or fresh waters, or they can be euryhaline, where a subset exhibit diadromy (Whitehead, 1985). Strictly marine clupeiforms (33.7% of all species) are distributed in every ocean, except for the Southern Ocean (Whitehead, 1985), while strictly freshwater species (17.8% of all species) are found on every continent except for Antarctica (Bloom and Egan, 2018). Major threats to clupeiforms are similar to those found for other groups of fishes (e.g., Roberts and Hawkins, 1999; Reynolds et al., 2005), with overexploitation as the leading threat for all clupeiforms in all habitats. While overexploitation may be the most prolific threat by impacting the highest number of clupeiforms, pollution may be the most detrimental, as it affects greater numbers of CR species. When compared to other economically and ecologically important fish groups globally assessed using the IUCN Red List methodology, clupeiforms have the lowest estimated percentage of threatened and NT species overall. Using the midpoint of species evaluated as elevated concern, roughly 11% are currently at high risk compared to approximately 22% of tunas and billfishes (Collette et al., 2011), 19% of sparids (Comeros Raynal et al., 2016), and 19% of groupers (Sadovy de Mitcheson et al., 2020).

All of nature’s biodiversity is not visible. Biodiversity can also not be studied and/ or understood by looking at and analyzing it with the naked eye. A great proportion of the planet’s biodiversity flourishes in the ecosystems not directly accessible to us and the organisms in the sizes our eyes cannot record. The soil biodiversity is more interesting and more varied than we have understood and appreciated. The biodiversity in the soil - together with the physical environment - constitutes what we can call the pedosphere. Biodiversity in the pedosphere is distinguishable from that of the biodiversity above the soil surface. One is nonplussed by an understanding of some of the unbelievable features and functions of the pedosphere biodiversity.

The Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) held on the occasion of the historical Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 underlined the significance of biodiversity conservation for various tangible and non-tangible benefits as well as one of the key factors for sustainability. However, the conservation of soil biodiversity for realizing sustainability

Introduction

The term ‘biodiversity’ comes from the words biological diversity and quite simply means the variety of all living things, including microbes, plants and animals– from single-celled organisms to the largest mammals and trees. Biodiversity also refers to genetic diversity within a species (essential for evolution) and also the diversity of the woodlands, wetlands and other habitats which provide the food, water and shelter for these species. Human life itself depends upon healthy ecosystems (e.g. wetlands, forests and grasslands) and the biodiversity that they contain. Biodiversity gives us many of the essentials of life – water, oxygen, food, clothing, and medicines, without which we could not survive, and therefore contributes greatly to our economy. Access to nature is also a popular form of relaxation that greatly enriches our lives and helps to keep us healthy. Species are linked in an infinite number of ways via food-webs and the habitats they share. If one species becomes extinct, it may affect many more. If too many species become extinct then whole ecosystems can collapse, with severe consequences for the way we live. Across the world, biodiversity is under threat from human activity such as over-intensive or inappropriate farming, large-scale commercial forestry, forest clearance, mineral extraction, pollution and urban development. Conservation of plant diversity assumes greater importance when the world is facing unprecedented loss of biological diversity. As per an estimate about 60,000 out of 2, 87, 655 species of plants known in the world are facing the threat of extinction.

Agro-ecosystems are defined as ecological and socio-economic system comprising domesticated plants and/or animals and the people who husband them, intended for the purpose of producing food, fiber, or other agricultural products. Agro-ecosystems are ecological systems transformed and simplified for the purpose of agriculture. In the case of agro-ecosystems productivity, these systems have Holling resilience if, in some state, they are able to maintain productivity and withstand stress or external shocks (e.g., due to lower rainfall and droughts). In many situations, biodiversity provides the link between stress and loss of resilience is a system (Perrings et al., 1995). Genetic variation within species and within population increases the ability to respond to the challenges of environmental stress (Mainwaring, 2001).

Plant biodiversity is the single greatest resource that man garnered from nature during the long cultural development phase. More than 2.5 lakh species of mosses, ferns, conifers and flowering plants and more than 50,000 plant species are yet to be documented, primarily in the remote and less studied reaches of tropical forests.

Vegetable crops in which rich diversity occurs in India are Cowpea, Common bean, Cole crops, Okra, Brinjal, Sweet potato, Taros, Yams, Sword bean, Velvet bean and Elephant foot yam. Wide diversity was observed in chives, leeks and other Allium spp in Kumaoun and Garhwal Himalayas; cluster bean in Western arid zone; lab lab bean in Deccan plateau; cucurbits in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh and leaf vegetables like Amaranth and Fagopyrum in Western Himalayan region. Tropical vegetables consist of solanaceus fruits (tomato, hot pepper, brinjal), cucurbits (water melon, muskmelon, cucumber, pumpkins and squashes, bottle gourd, chow-chow, ivy gourd, bitter gourd, ash gourd, round gourd, snake gourd, pointed gourd, sponge gourd, ridge gourd), malvaceous vegetables (Okra),legumes (common bean, lima bean, dolichos bean, cowpea, sword bean, winged bean), allium (onion, shallot, garlic, leek) and leaf vegetables (amaranth, spinach beet, Ceylon spinach). The indigenous vegetables both cultivated and wild have important role in household nutrition, economy and food security. There are 25 hot spots of biodiversity of which Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayan region are the most important ones. Indo-Myanmar region is one of the largest hot spots of the world and is the centre of origin of tuber crops like yams, taro, Amorphophallus and Alocasia. Tropical tuber crops form an important group of subsistence crops especially to those living in tropics and sub tropical zones. Tuber crops are the third important food crops after cereals and grain legumes. Major tuber crops are cassava, sweet potato, Asiatic yam, African yam, lesser yam, elephant foot yam, taro, tannia and country potato. Minor tuber crops are arrowroot, winged bean, yam bean, canna, safed musli and Jerusalem artichoke. Sweet potato is one of the world’s highest yielding crops.

Biodiversity is the origin of all species of crops and domesticated and the variety within them. It is also the foundation of ecosystem services essential to sustain agriculture and human well-being. Today’s crop and livestock biodiversity are the result of many thousands years of human intervention. The biodiversity in vegetable crops is composed by the genetic diversity, as species diversity (inter specific diversity) and as diversity of genes within a species (intra specific diversity) referring to the vegetable grown varieties, and by the diversity of agro-ecosystems (agro-biodiversity).

Crop diversity is the variance in genetic and phenotypic characteristics of plants used in agriculture. Over the past 50 years, there has been a major decline in two components of crop diversity; genetic diversity within each crop and the number of species commonly grown.

Introduction

Corals are made up of hundreds of soft-bodied organisms called coral polyps that secrete, caco3 over time. It belongs to the phylum Cnidaria. Polyps varies in size from a pinhead to a foot in length. Each polyp has a symbiotic relationship with a host zooxanthellae, which gives color to the coral. Zooxanthellae absorb carbon dioxide, convert it through photosynthesis, and release oxygen and other essential nutrients, which are then utilized by the host polyp. All other photosynthesizing species, including corals, require adequate sunlight exposure. Most corals are therefore restricted to shallow, clean, and transparent environments.

6.1 Biodiversity

Biodiversity means biological diversity. It measures the variety of the earth’s animal, plant and microbial species; of genetic difference within species and of the ecosystems that support the species in its widest. Biodiversity is virtually synonymous with “life on earth”, this word was coined in 1985. Biodiversity is the degree of variety in nature and not nature itself.

Biodiversity in flora and fauna is the wealth of any nation. Billions of genes with considerable value are habitated in the bioreserves designated. Genetic resources are the backbone of crop improvement in horticulture. Term ‘genetic resources’ was coined by Sir Otto Frankelin 1967 to highlight germplasm as natural resource for improvement of crop plants. The Consortiumof International Agricultural Research Centers (CGIAR) established in 1971 by United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is a consultative group to support a network of 16 international agricultural research centres. It controls world’s largest collection of genetic resources of more than 6 lakhs of accessions of over 3,000 crops, forage and pasture species (both cultivated & wild). International Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR, 1974 now Biodiversity International)
situated at Rome, Italy had become the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) in October, 1991 for collection, evaluation & conservation of germplasm for future use. IPGRI began independent operation as one of the Centres of CGIAR in 1994. Today, Biodiversity International is the only global research-for-development organization that investigates the conservation and use of agricultural and forest bio-diversity. It is in the forefront of assisting member countries in identifying genetic resources for nutritional and food security without hampering the fragile ecosystem.
Biodiversity of given region is assessed in terms of species richness. It boosts ecosystem productivity where each species, no matter how small, all have an important role to play. Plant Generic Resource (PGR) is fundamental to crop improvement programme and the key to establish future food and nutritional security. The 1st plant genetic resources centre of the world was situated at Leningrad, Russia. Later in McNeely et al. (1990) categorized India as one of the 12 mega biodiversity countries in the world and paved the way for its placement on the world’s conservation map. Myers (2000) identified global bio-diversity hotspots and North East parts of India are the 2nd largest and next only to Mediterranean basin among the 25 identified globally.

SUMMARY

The primary requirement for sustainable agriculture is the maintenance of a satisfactory balance of water, air and salt in the root zone encouraging for plant growth. This balance can be achieved by sufficient drainage. About 22% of the World's irrigated area is affected by waterlogging and salinity. Vertical drainage by pumping can control the increase of ground water table in those areas where the ground water is of good quality. Horizontal sub-surface drainage in which the saline ground water is drained away through pipes and drains, is the other regularly used anti waterlogging methods. In bio-drainage system, the characteristic of the trees to transpire water is used to control the increase of ground water table. It is an alternative drainage method, which would be most economical and environmental congenial. But there are worries and doubts on the long-term sustainability of biodrainage. This chapter describes various aspects of biodrainage.

Biodynamic farming, a pioneering method of organic agriculture founded by Rudolf Steiner in the 1920s, emphasizes a holistic, ecological approach to farming. Central to this practice is the concept of viewing the farm as a self sustaining organism, integrating plants, animals, soil, and cosmic rhythms into a unified system. Biodynamic certification and standards are essential for ensuring that farming practices adhere to these holistic principles, providing transparency and credibility to consumers. This article explores the origins, principles, processes, and implications of biodynamic certification. It discusses key certification bodies, the rigorous standards they enforce, and the benefits and challenges associated with certification. Through detailed analysis, this article aims to offer a comprehensive understanding of how biodynamic certification supports sustainable agriculture and impacts the broader agricultural landscape.

Introduction

Organic farming is basically a holistic management system, which promotes and improves the health of the agro-ecosystem related to biodiversity, nutrient biocycles, soil microbial and biochemical activities. Organic and bio-dynamic farming emphasises management practices involving substantial use of organic manures, green manuring, organic pest management pratices and so on. It has also come to mean that it is a system of farming that prohibits the use of artificial fertilisers and synthetic pesticides.

Biodynamic agriculture is an advanced form of organic farming system that is gaining increasing attention because of its added advantage of soil health and food quality. It is an alternative variant where the chemical fertilisers are totally replaced by microbial (biological) nutrient givers such as bacteria, algae, fungi, mycorhiza, actinomycetes. Biological Pest management of crops is undertaken by employing predators, parasites and other plethora of natural enemies of pests, in addition to all the rest of option that help to avoid resorting to chemical pesticides. These agents could be augmented into farms or promoted through such activities that favour their flourished activities. Composting, Green manuring, crop rotations. Intercropping, mixed cropping etc. as well as bird perches, trap crops promote such biological activities.

Biodynamic farming, rooted in the early 20th-century spiritual insights of Rudolf Steiner, has evolved into a globally recognized approach to agriculture that emphasizes the interconnectedness of soil, plants, animals, and cosmic rhythms. This article explores the principles and practices of biodynamic farming and traces its development across different regions of the world. It examines the contributions of international organizations and movements in promoting biodynamic practices, enhancing sustainability, and advocating for ecological harmony. The article also delves into the challenges and opportunities faced by biodynamic farmers globally and assesses the impact of biodynamic farming on soil health, crop quality, and community well-being. By highlighting case studies and initiatives from various countries, the article aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the global biodynamic farming movement and its role in shaping the future of sustainable agriculture.

Introduction

The dawn of the 21st century brings with it unprecedented challenges for agriculture - challenges that demand a departure from conventional practices and a harmonious integration of spirituality and sustainable methodologies. In this pursuit, Bio Dynamic Farming emerges as a beacon, guiding farmers to cultivate not only crops but also a deeper understanding of the spiritual dimensions intertwined with the earth's rhythms. Rooted in the visionary teachings of Rudolf Steiner and his anthroposophical principles, Bio Dynamic Farming transcends the mechanistic view of agriculture, offering a holistic paradigm where spirituality and sustainable agriculture dance in unison.

Biodynamic Farming introduces biodynamic preparations used within holistic approaches to soil and crop management. The chapter systematically presents formulations BD-500 and BD-501 and the compost preparations BD-502 to BD-508, prepared from materials such as yarrow, chamomile, stinging nettle, oak bark, dandelion, valerian, and horsetail. Cow Pat Pit is also included. The discussion emphasizes the preparation and intended agricultural role of these formulations within biodynamic farming systems. By presenting each preparation separately, the chapter provides students and practitioners with an organized reference for understanding traditional and biodynamic inputs and their place within broader sustainable, ecological, and natural farming practices. for reference.

Biodynamic farming is a holistic agricultural system that emphasizes the interrelationship between soil, plants, animals, and cosmic forces. A cornerstone of this practice is the use of biodynamic preparations, which are specialized herbal and mineral formulations applied to the soil, compost, and plants to enhance their health and vitality. This article delves into the origins, development, and specific types of biodynamic preparations, including their ingredients, preparation methods, and application techniques. By exploring both the scientific and spiritual dimensions of these preparations, the article aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of their role in biodynamic farming. It also examines the empirical evidence supporting their efficacy, addresses common criticisms, and discusses future research directions.

Bioenergetics is a branch of Biochemistry that focuses on the study of energy transformation and utilization in living organisms. It primarily deals with how cells capture, store, and utilize energy to drive various biological processes essential for sustaining life. The flow of energy in biological systems operates in accordance with the principles of thermodynamics, which govern the conversion of energy from one form to another. In living cells, energy is typically obtained through biochemical reactions involving the breakdown of organic compounds such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. This energy is then utilized for various physiological processes like the synthesis of biomolecules, active transport of ions, muscle contraction, and nerve conduction, enabling the cell to maintain its structural and functional integrity. Thermodynamics, a branch of physical chemistry, plays a crucial role in bioenergetics as it explains the changes in energy associated with biochemical reactions. In biochemical thermodynamics, also referred to as bioenergetics, the primary focus is on how energy released from one reaction can be utilized to drive another reaction that requires energy input. This is achieved through

Summary

Bioenergy is the subject of increasing attention around the globe and represents an important issue in the present context. The rise of commodities prices, the negative impact on food security, and climate change represent different challenges to be overcome before the full potential of bioenergy can be realized. Bioenergy issues related to agriculture needs special attention for its development. Bioenergy development is always linked with rural economy. Farmers, having the choice to convert their food crops to fuels crops, naturally expect a high return from their farmland, thereby generating a scenario where food production gets depleted. The optimal production of bioenergy can be generated by using the wasteland present in different area. This way, food security for the future generation can be maintained along with optimal growth of bioenergy.

Introduction 
In recent years, the global demand for sustainable and renewable energy sources has intensified due to the continuous depletion of fossil fuel reserves, rising fuel prices, and environmental concerns. Bioethanol, a renewable fuel derived from the fermentation of plant biomass, is considered a promising alternative to petroleum-based fuels. Among various feedstocks, tuber crops such as cassava, sweet potato, and potato have gained significant attention due to their high starch content and relatively low competition with food supply in certain regions. Bioethanol production is broadly categorized into four generations based on the type of feedstock and technology involved: First-Generation Bioethanol is derived from food crops such as maize, sugarcane, and tuber crops. Despite its wide application, it has been criticized for contributing to rising food prices (Khairati, 2024). Second-Generation Bioethanol is produced from non-food lignocellulosic biomass like agricultural residues, which reduces the food vs. fuel conflict (Sharma et al., 2020). Third- Generation Bioethanol is derived from algal biomass, offering higher yields and lower competition with land use (Brennan & Owende, 2010). Fourth-Generation Bioethanol combines biomass conversion with carbon capture and storage technologies, providing the highest environmental benefits (Yoon et al., 2012). Further the trend in world ethanol production during the year 20020–2025 is given in Figure 1. Tuber crops such as cassava, sweet potato, and potato are promising feedstocks due to their high starch content and lower food competition in certain regions. Recent studies highlight the efficiency of bioethanol production from these crops: Cassava is considered the most efficient tuber crop for bioethanol production due to its high starch yield and low production cost (Jagatee et al., 2015). Sweet Potato studies report ethanol yields of up to 138.6 g/kg under optimized fermentation conditions using co-fermentation techniques (Dash et al., 2017). Industrial potato waste has been successfully utilized for bioethanol production, with pilotscale experiments yielding up to 68.68% ethanol concentration (Sehsah et al., 2015). Bioethanol production from tuber crops presents several environmental and economic benefits. Life Cycle Assessment studies indicate that bioethanol reduces GHG emissions compared to gasoline, particularly in second-generation production systems (Farahani & Asoodar, 2017). Utilizing agricultural waste

9.1 Introduction

The rapid growth of industrialization and population significantly affect on the demand of ethanol as an alternate fuel. Generally, conventional crops like sugarcane and corn become unable to meet the demand of bioethanol, due to their primary role in food and feed. Therefore, lignocellulosic biomass from agriculture waste is attractive precursor for bioethanol production. Biomass is renewable organic material, abundant and cost effective. Ethanol production from agriculture waste has been projected an economically attractive option for industrial sector. However, sugar and starch derived ethanol have a more theoretical yield as compared to lignocelluloses, theses sources are insufficient for bioethanol production. The major agricultural wastes including rice straw, corn straw, wheat straw and sugarcane bagasse etc. can subsequently used for ethanol production. Rice straw has a highest worldwide potential for bioethanol production (205 giga liter) followed by wheat straw (104 giga liter), corn straw (58.6 giga liter), and finally for sugarcane bagasse (51.3 giga liter)¹.

A bio fuels is environmentally friendly options for power generation. Most of the fossil fuels are biological in nature. These are plant forms that, typically, remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and give up the same amount when burnt. The bio fuels are therefore considered to be “CO₂ neutral”, not adding to the carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere. The type of bio fuel used will depend on a number of factor, chief amongst them being the available feedstock and the energy that can be used locally.

India import 70% of the oil it uses, and the country has been hard by the increasing price of oil, uncertainty and environmental hazards that are concerned with the consumption of fossil fuels. In this context, bio fuels constitute a suitable alternative source of energy for India. There are two examples of bio fuels are Ethanol and Bio diesel (Renewable Diesel)

Ethanol can be made from biomass material containing sugar, starches, or cellulose (starch and cellulose are complex from of sugar)

14.1 Ethics in Scientific Research and Innovation
Introduction
Scientific research and innovation in biotechnology, particularly in the realms of genetic engineering, genomics, and transgenic organisms, bring immense promise for advancing agriculture, health, and environmental sustainability. However, this progress must be balanced with strong ethical foundations, as the misuse or careless application of biotechnological innovations can lead to irreversible harm to humans, society, and the biosphere. The term bioethics encapsulates the principles of morality, justice, and responsibility that should govern all scientific inquiry and technological development.
Ethics in scientific research and innovation is not merely an adjunct to regulatory compliance—it is a core component of scientific integrity and social responsibility. It ensures that biotechnological advances are developed in ways that respect human dignity, safeguard biodiversity, and reflect societal values.
1. Fundamental Ethical Principles in Scientific Research
Ethical decision-making in science is guided by several foundational principles, adapted from biomedical and research ethics. These include:

Introduction

Fertilizers are natural or man-made compounds applied on the plant ,soil or water for enhancement of natural soil or water nutrients for improvement of growth , fertility of soil (Edgerton 2009) or water. These make accessible vital macro-nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sulfur, and magnesium) together with various micronutrients (zinc, copper, iron, boron, and molybdenum) to plants (Alley and Vanlauwe 2009) and animals.

Use of biofertilizers in agriculture and their advantage
 
Bio-fertilizers or bio-inoculants

These are productions containing living organisms such as nitrogen fixers or phosphorus solubilises which are useful for agricultural production. Biofertilizers play a significant role in improving soil fertility and plant growth. By fixing atmospheric nitrogen both in association with plants and without plants solubilize insoluble soil phosphates into soluble phosphates there by increasing the availability of phosphorus secrete growth promoting substances and supplies to the inoculated plants.

Boost to crop production has been the ultimate goal of researchers involved in agriculture so as to feed the ever-increasing human and domestic herbivorous animal populations. Crop production is not only constrained by the limited inherent potential of available varieties currently in use, but is also largely affected by the limitations of soil nutrient availability and damages by diseases, insects and weeds. To counter later challenges, augmentation of soil nutrients through use of biofertilizers in integrated nutrient management programmes and restricting the use of chemical pesticide by integrating biopesticides in plant protection programmes has received much attention in recent years because of consumer’s preference for organic food.

Sustainable crop production depends upon the rational use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides along with organic manures for better soil health. Owing to the constant production of crops from the soil, the latter is being depleted gradually of its nitrogenous and other nutrients. An ordinary crop takes about 25 lb of nitrogen (N) from an acre. It is, therefore, necessary to replenish the soil with the elements, which are removed by the crops year after year. Moreover, in recent years increasing fertilizer costs, and concern for sustainable soil productivity and ecological stability in relation to use of chemical fertilizers, have emerged as issues of vital concern. Furthermore, heavy reliance on chemical fertilizers tends to favour economically those farmers with large hectarage. These considerations have led to a renewed interest in the biofertilizers and organic manures such as FYM, compost and green manures. Biofertilizers which are formulations of bacteria, blue green algae or fungi helps in sustainable agriculture production either by providing plants with fixed nitrogen, available P or by other plant growth promoting substances. Organic matter (OM) is the life of the soil because it contains all the essential elements required for plant growth.

Introduction

Biofertilizers are microbial preparations containing living or latent cells of efficient strains of nitrogen fixing, phosphate solubilizing and cellulose decomposing microorganisms intended for seed or soil application and designed to improve soil fertility and plant growth by increasing the number and biological activity of beneficial microorganisms in the soil.

The objects behind the application of biofertilizers /microbial inoculants to seed, soil is to increase the number and biological / metabolic activity of useful microorganisms that accelerate certain microbial processes to augment the extent of availability of nutrients in the available forms which can be easily assimilated by plants. The need for the use of biofertilizers has arisen primarily due to two reasons i.e. though chemical fertilizers increase soil fertility, crop productivity and production, but increased / intensive use of chemical fertilizers has caused serious concern of soil texture, soil fertility and other environmental problems.Use of biofertilizers is both economical as well as environment friendly. Therefore, an integrated approach of applying both chemical fertilizers and biofertilizers is the best way of integrated nutrient supply in agriculture.

Biofertilizers, thus include i) Symbiotic nitrogen fixers- Rhizobium sp. ii) Non-symbiotic, free living nitrogen fixers- Azotobacter, Azospirillum etc. iii) Blue Green Algae (BGA) inoculants- Azolla-Anabaena, iv) Phosphate solubilizing microorganisms (PSM)- Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Penicillium, Aspergillus etc. v) Mycorrhiza vi) Cellulolytic microorganisms

Increasing food need, decreasing land availability and concurrently attenuating synthetic nutrients supply envisage the use of alternate supplementary inputs for the cultivation of crops. India is among the few nations where systematic farming started thousands of years ago. It was not only the source of income but was also a way of life. Agricultural activities and the techniques adapted to suit local needs and conditions. Different farming systems were followed by the farmers in different areas according to their needs and weather conditions. The produce was usually shared with other communities of the society involved in other professions. Almost all the nutrients removed by the crops were recycled to the soil directly or indirectly (Yadav and Mowade, 2005). In economic terms, the system followed by the then farming community was highly cost effective since all the inputs needed were locally available and practically no expenditure was incurred except labour. The traditional agriculture was though less productive but self-sufficient. With the advent of modern scientific discoveries, agriculture also changed its face, and with the introduction of high yielding varieties, synthetic fertilizers and effective plant protection measures through chemicals, Indian agriculture made rapid strides in the shape of Green Revolution. As an upshot of Green Revolution, the grain production increased two and a half folds in about three decades with a marginal increase in net-area under cultivation.