eChapters

Preliminaries and Test Based on N. P. Lemma
    
More on Testing of Hypothesis

Infertility means reduced fertility or the cow is ultimately capable of becoming pregnant and giving birth to a live calf but the interval may be much longer than 12 months. 

I. Problems leading to infertility

1. No signs of estrus

When the animal is pregnant and for a short time after calving the cows may not show estrus signs. A thorough palpation of the ovaries and tubular genital tract should be performed and a repeat examination may be necessary.

The camel is an important animal component of the fragile desert eco-system. With its unique bio-physiological characteristics, the camel has become an icon of adaptation to challenging ways of living in arid and semi-arid regions. The proverbial Ship of Desert earned its epithet on account of its indispensability as a mode of transportation and draught power in desert but the utilities are many and are subject to continuous social and economic changes. The camel has played a significant role in civil law and order, defence and battles from the ancient times till date. The world famous Ganga-Risala of erstwhile Bikaner State was accepted as Imperial Service Troup and participated in World War I and II.

INTRODUCTION

Plant tissue culture is basically in vitro culturing of any type of explants such as leaf, root, bud and stem or even single cell except the seed or embryo on a suitable culture medium under controlled environmental conditions. Plant tissue culture employs the totipotency of plant cells to produce whole plant. The term totipotency was coined by German plant physiologist, Haberlandt (1902) who is known as father of tissue culture techniques.

Definition of Micropropagation

Micropropagation is one of the best and most successful examples of commercial application of tissue culture techniques. The concept of micropropagation was first presented to the scientific community in 1960 by Morel, who produced the virus-free cymbidium through meristem culture. It entails in vitro propagation of plants starting with very small plant parts (0.2-10mm) grown aseptically, followed by their establishment in soil under green house conditions. It is the art and science of plant multiplication in vitro. This technique has been standardized and commercialized for various fruits and vegetable crops.

4.1    Importance of Banana in International Trade
    
4.2    Major Exporting Countries
    
4.3    Major Importing Countries
    
4.4    World Market Structure for Fresh Bananas
    
4.5    Domestic Trade
    
4.6    Banana Trade Wars : A Glimpse
    
4.7    Fair Trade Bananas

Introduction

India has a long tradition of agroforestry which is widely practiced in all ecological and geographical regions of the country. Traditional agroforestry systems are broadly based on indigenous knowledge and the species are selected as a part of the cultural patterns of the community. The farmers and land owners in different parts of the country integrate a variety of woody perennials in the crop and livestock production systems depending upon the agro-climatic conditions and local requirements.

Introduction

Agriculture has always been vulnerable to fragile environmental conditions of dry areas, where droughts of varying amplitude and frequency influenced by insufficient and uncertain rainfall are common features. Recent anthropogenic activities have accelerated the rate of green house gas (GHGs) accumulation in atmosphere influencing atmospheric temperature and local patterns of temperature and precipitation, which ultimately affect agricultural production and food securities. About 35.5 percent of the total world’s population resides in dry areas, which is facing the problems of land degradation and food securities.

Introduction

Agroforestry refers to practices, which deliberately or intentionally mix or retain woody perennials on the crop/animal production systems. It combines elements of agriculture, crops and/ or animals with elements of forestry in production system in a unit of land, either simultaneously or sequentially. The term woody perennials includes tree, shrubs, bushes, palm, bamboos, etc. which in agroforestry context are often referred to as multipurpose trees and shrubs (Wood, 1988). The word deliberate has significance a few trees remaining during the process of land clearance for agriculture is not agroforestry. To qualify as agroforestry, a system should actively promote the woody perennials for a particular purpose, or purposes, on the farm (Bhatt et al., 2001). This land use system is particularly suitable for resource poor marginal farmers became diverse needs are fulfilled by one system with escape routes during natural calamities. In hill agro-ecosystems, agroforestry plays an important role in sustainable resource conservation and food security. It is also used to diversify and intensify farming systems through integration of indigenous tree-crops.

Abstract: The size of the homegardens ranged between 0.10-1.00 ha; they were located in tropical region with multi-storied structure, commonly containing three layers but sometimes with four layers. Individual households were the sampling units and for each homegarden, the area was measured and crop composition, species richness and uses of plant species was enumerated through direct observation and interviews with the farmers. The composition and richness of species varied between the homegardens but was related to site characteristics and size of the garden. A total of 231 plant species (105 tree species, 50 shrubs and 76 herbs) belonging to 88 families were recorded from the gardens among which 27% species were common to all gardens. Among the trees, as many as 24 species (23%) were common to all the homegardens. The vegetable species constituted the major functional group followed by fruits. Homegardens were found to be a good reservoir of plant genetic resources that preserve diverse landraces, cultivars, and many more ecologically and economically important plant species. Our study depicts that the homegardens can play an important role in food security and sustainable livelihood support of this hilly people in a variety of ways and can be an alternative to shifting cultivation.

7.1.    Single Action Gene
    
    7.1.1.    Osmoprotectants
    7.1.2.    Detoxifying Genes
    7.1.3.    Late Embryogenesis Abundant (LEA) Protein
    7.1.4.    Transporter Genes
    7.1.5.    Multifunctional Genes for Lipid Biosynthesis
    7.1.6.    Heat -shock Protein Genes
    
7.2.    Regulatory Gene
    
    7.2.1.    Transcription Factors
    7.2.2.    Signal Transduction Genes
    
7.3.    Choice of Promoters
    
7.4.    Physiological Evaluation of Stress Effect
    
7.5.    Conclusions
        
References

In post-harvest management of horticultural crops, post-harvest treatments play an important role in maintaining the quality and enhancing the shelf life. There are number of treatments viz non-chemical, chemical and biological treatments which are being used commercially depending on the requirement of trade. Fresh fruits are living tissues subject to continuous change after harvest. Some changes are desirable from consumer point of view but most are not. Post-harvest changes in fresh fruit cannot be stopped, but these can be slowed down within certain limits to enhance the shelf life of fruits
 
1. Low Temperature Treatment

Pre-cooling: Pre-cooling refers to the rapid removal of field heat from freshly harvested fruits in order to slow ripening and reduce the deterioration prior to storage and transportation. The major effect of pre-cooling consists in reducing respiration rate, retarding the growth of decay organisms and reduces wilting and shrivelling, since transpiration and evaporation occur more slowly at low temperature. The harvesting of many perishable crops is done at evening or early morning to avoid excessive field heat.

Introduction

Homegardens are traditional agricultural systems, particularly common in the tropics characterized by a high plant diversity (Kumar and Nair 2004, 2006; Scales and Marsden 2008; Galluzzi et al. 2010), maintain high level of productivity, stability, sustainability and equitability (Soemarwoto and Conway 1992), serve as a refuge for wildlife (Perfecto and Vandermeer 2008), contributing significantly to the household diet by producing a large variety of food commodities (Kumar and Nair 2004; Wiersum 2006; Pulido et al. 2008; Kortright and Wakefield 2011; Kumar 2017; Kumar and Tripathi 2017), nutritional supplies (Mendez et al. 2001; Perrault and Coomes 2008; Vlkova et al. 2010; Balooni et al. 2014), supplementary cash income for owner (Huai et al. 2011; Arifin et al. 2012; Yang et al. 2014) and important spaces for transmission of cultural heritage (Galluzzi et al. 2010). Many native or endangered species can be found in homegardens (Albuquerque et al. 2005; Akinnifesi et al. 2010; Milow et al. 2013), and they are niches for domesticating semi-wild species (Akinnifesi et al. 2010). Plants grown, intentionally or unintentionally, in homegardens are important for household subsistence and economy.

Introduction
 
Historically, foresters did not view trees as typical plants having the systems of heredity similar to all other living organisms. Previously it was felt that the tree development depended only upon the environment in which it was grown. Recently, the “forest tree parentage” in the tree improvement programme has gained importance.  Although there are several breeding methods for improvement of any crop, the most commonly used breeding method in tree improvement is “selection” of superior trees from existing or established population. The objective of selection programme is to obtain significant amount of genetic gain as quickly and inexpensively as possible, while at the same time maintaining a broad genetic base to ensure the future genetic general principle; that is choosing the most desirable individuals for the use as parent in breeding and production programmes.

The most successful tree improvement programmes are those in which proper vegetative propagules and provenances are used. Success in the establishment and productivity of forest plantations is determined largely by the species used and the source of seed or vegetative propagules used within the population.

1.    Botanical Background/Classification
    
2.    Nutritive and Medicinal Values of Fruits
    
3.    Genetic Resources
    
4.    Plant Propagation
    
5.    Design and Orchard Management
    
6.    Physiology of Fruit Trees
        
References

Case Study    :    Indian Ocean Tsunami - 2004

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Indian Initiatives in Tuna Fishery
    
3.    Tuna Harvesting Techniques
    3.1    Locating tuna
    3.2    Fishing gear and machinery
    3.3    Post harvest catch handling and storage techniques
    
4.    Post Harvest Handling Techniques for the Production of Sashimi Quality Tuna
        
    4.1    Killing and cleaning tools
    4.2    The ten easy steps to sashimi quality tuna
    
Acknowledgements
    
References

The United Nations had declared the decade of 90s (1990-1999) as the International Decade for National Disaster Risk Reduction to enable developing countries to build up their capacity to cope up with disasters. The Government of India also set up a High Powered Committee (HPC), in August 1999, to review the preparedness and mitigation of natural and manmade disasters and recommend measures for strengthening the organisational structures and a comprehensive model plan for management of disasters at national, state and district level. The HPC after due deliberatons submitted the report in Feb. 2001. The HPC identified the disasters under the following types (categories) :

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is one of the most important tropical fruits of the world and is commonly known as the ‘King of fruits’ for its high quality fruits which are very popular among the Indians (Sharma et al., 2008). It is an oldest and extensively cultivated fruit crop in India having high socio-economic significance. India is the home of about more than 1000 mango varieties, which originated in the Indo-Burma region (Mukherjee, 1958). India is the largest producer of mango, grown in about 2.3 million hectares with an annual production of 15.02 million tonnes. However, its productivity is only 6.5 tonnes ha against 30 tonnes per ha in Israel. Improvement of productivity in mango continues to be the foremost issue in mango production (Sauco, 1993). Of late, all the mango importing countries are considering the India as a source of quality mangoes due to its varietal wealth and availability. Hence, it is imperative to improve the productivity and quality of Indian mangoes to meet the global need (Balamohan and Gopu, 2014).

The ultrasonography is a technique which uses sound waves of very high frequency to scan the various organs of the body. The ultrasound waves of 2-10 mHz frequency are used in veterinary practice. A quartz crystal when stimulated by short pulse current ultrasound waves are emitted. The ultrasound waves emitted are directed towards a specific target organ are reflected back as echoes. The echoes are received by the same quartz crystal and are processed in the electronic circuit and finally displayed as image on the monitor.

Abstract

We studied the mathematic model of “predator-prey” and„ pest-parasite”. Under the circumstances when these two specious coexist in particular conditions. In that case the components of the system continuously change. We describe the system by two differential equations which conclude into numeral equation by integrators and variables. According these equations we calculate some numeral formulations essential to these changeable populations.
  
We produce the prevalence of predator-prey systems by using analytic and quantitatic methods for massive rage of data. This process as usual is described by the differential equation consisting assembling point. The constructed phase portrait which we need to solve the problem is found by Runge-Kuta method. So the article speaks about the conformity with a law which we receive by permanent change of parameters’ menaings and temporal changes of biological systems’ conditions.

When there is no positive steady state both prey and predator can become extinct. In one particular case both species become extinct regardless on the initial data. In the second, both species will die out only if initial prey/predator ratio is too low. Otherwise, only the predator goes extinct, while prey tends to carrying capacity.