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In previous section we discussed about the ability of the research design to precisely detect the relationship between cause and effect under controlled conditions. But in social research it becomes difficult to conduct the research under highly controlled conditions and moreover many of the researches in social science aim at prediction rather than understanding.

As we discussed earlier, aim of science is development theory, understanding, prediction and explanation of natural phenomenon. In many of the cases we are more interested in predicting the occurrence of social phenomenon rather than explaining it or understanding its relationship with other phenomenon. Under such conditions internal validity is of less use because a relationship that is established in artificially controlled conditions (with high internal validity) may fail to express itself in natural setup due to effect of extraneous variables. When the relationship between cause and effect is weak enough to be expressed in natural setup then it is of less use in predicting the phenomenon. Under such conditions we require experiments that are conducted in nearly natural setup, so that we can generalize the findings of the research to the wider domain.

Origin and Distribution of Camel

A camel is an even-toed ungulate within the genus Camelus of the family Camelidae bearing distinctive fatty deposits known as “humps” on its back. There are two species of camel, viz. Camelus dromedarius (single humped dromedary) having habitat in dry hot arid lands of Africa and Asia, and Camelus bacterianus (double humped or bactrian) habitat of cold arid lands of Central palaerctic (a zoogeographical region consisting of Europe, Africa north of the Sahara, and most of Asia north of the Himalayas) region. Family Camelidae also includes other species which are camel like mammals. Those are Lama (Lama glama), Alpaca (Lama pacos), Vicuna (Vicugna vicugna) and Guanaco (Lama guanicoe). These four species are termed as new-world Camelidae having habitat in South America. The Indian camel belongs to Camelus dromedarius. A very small numbers of double-humped camels are also available in Ladakh area of Jammu and Kashmir.

Camel is an important component of desert eco-system. It is capable of traveling long distance in hot, arid and sandy regions carrying men, material and providing energy to agricultural operations. They provide milk, meat, hair and used as work animals. It is believed that Camels were domesticated during the period from 3000 to 2500 BC. Average life expectancy of a camel is 40-50 years. The height at the shoulder and hump of a fully grown adult camel is 1.85 and 2.15 metres, respectively. Camel can run at a speed of up to 65km/h for a short distance and can sustain a speed of up to 40km/h for long distance.

Weed

Definition: “Weed is an unwanted plant growing where it is not desired.” – Jethro Tull

Commonly noticed weed species in fruit orchard:

• There are more than 30,000 species of weeds distributed world over, out of which 18,000 are noxious and cause serious losses.
• Around 250 species are causing serious economic losses.
• Monocot weeds (Narrow leaf/Grasses): Cyprus, Cynodon, Poagrass, Rye grass, Quackgrass etc.
• Dicot weeds (Broad leaf weeds): Dandelion, Chenopodium spp., Parthenium, Solanum, Euphrobia spp., Ground ivy etc

Isabgol (Plantago ovata Forsk.)

The crop requires cool and dry climate during the growing season. Sowing of seeds at 4 kg/ha in 0.25-0.50 cm depth during November 20 to December 20 was recommended. In medium black cotton soil of Malwa region, second week of November was reported to be optimum time for sowing. Broadcasting of seeds followed by light sweeping with broom found to give uniform germination. A spacing of 30x 45 cm found to be most ideal to get higher seed yield in Isabgol under Madhya Pradesh situation. Response of chemical fertilisers was found low. However, a fertiliser dose of 25 kg/ha each of N and P₂O₅ as basal dose and 25 kg/ha N as top dressing at 30-42 DAS was recommended for commercial cultivation in Gujarat while 50 kg/ha N reported to increase the seed yield in Madsaur areas of Madhya Pradesh. At Anand three irrigations viz. first at the time of sowing and subsequently at 30 and 70 days after sowing (DAS) proved to be beneficial. However, four irrigations at sowing, 10,25, and 50 DAS at Mandsaur are recommended. Chemical weed control was found to be economical and a pre-sowing or pre-emergence application of Isoproturone (0.5 kg ai/ha) was recommended for weed control. One spray of Metalaxyl + two sprays of Mancozeb were found significantly superior in controlling downy mildew. In Gujarat, Pearl millet in Kharif and Isabgol in Rabi season are advocated as a suitable crop rotation. Groundnut-Isabgol rotation gave higher economic return followed by Soybean-Isabgol and Pigeon pea-Isabgol rotations in Maharashtra.

Marek’s disease is a herpesvirus-induced neoplastic disease of chickens characterized by infiltration of various nerve trunks and/or organs with pleomorphic lymphoid cells. Marek’s disease is world wide in distribution. Marek’s Disease has been named after Josef Marek who published the disease in 4 roosters in 1907.

Occurrence

In chickens only, however turkeys and quail have limited susceptibility. Lesions similar to MD have been seen in pheasants, ducks, pigeons, geese, canaries, budgerigars, swans and great horned owls. However, aetiology for lesions in these species has not been proved. It may appear at 3-4 weeks but usually after eight weeks, with major losses from 12-25 weeks. Morbidity and mortality varies depending on the virulence of MDV.

Abstract

Food processing involves the transformation of raw animal or plant materials into consumer-ready products, with the objective of stabilizing food products by preventing or reducing negative changes in quality. Without these processes, we would neither be able to store food from time of plenty to time of need nor to transport food over long distances. Food processing has also gained its importance in the wide variety of diet among people throughout the globe and availability of exotic food items at various places. Processing of food items enhance the taste, flavor and aroma of the food thereby increasing the overall chances of its acceptability among the masses. So, it is essential to determine and recognize the database of physical and engineering (aerodynamic and mechanical) properties of these agricultural products because these properties play an important role in designing and developing of specific machines and their operations such as sorting, separating and cleaning, also to determine the optimum in seed metering device in pneumatic planter and precision sowing machine to suite every size of these grains.

Abstract

Pigeon pea is an important pulse crop of India and its production is greatly affected by wilt disease. Pigeon pea wilt is a very destructive soil borne disease caused by Fusarium udum. In present research work plant extracts (Garlic, Neem, Tulsi), bio-agents (Trichoderma viride and Pseudomonas fluorescens) and fungicides (Vitavax, Bavistin and Thiram + Carbendazim) were tested against Fusarium udum. Among them fungicides were found most effective in inhibiting mycelial growth of Fusarium udum recorded 100% inhibition followed by garlic bulb extract (52.12 to 56.33%). Among bioagents, Pseudomonas fluorescens inhibit the growth up to (46.00 to 51.79%) followed by T. viride (44.32 to 48.79%) amongst all treatments except untreated.

Keywords: Pigeon pea, Fusarium udum, bio-agent, fungicide

Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.) is one of the major pulse crops grown in the tropics and subtropics belonging to family Leguminaceae. It has wide adaptability and low input requirements mostly grown in kharif season.

There are different types of greenhouses, the low cost and high cost or low technology or high technology greenhouses. The cost of greenhouse and expenditure on crop production under these greenhouses would vary according to technology to be used and the crop is to be produced. The cost would vary from place to place with location of greenhouse. For each type of greenhouse its cost would vary according to geo-climate, the production practices and input expenditure/availability. The cost of construction of greenhouse in 2019 hence varies from Rupees 500 to 6000 per square meter.

9.1. Molecular breeding and marker assisted selection

Using conventional breeding, developing new varieties takes atleast 15-20 years.

Molecular breeding shortened the time to 7-10 years.

One of the tools for faster variety development is Marker Assisted Selection (MAS).

MAS-refers to use of DNA markers to assist phenotypic screening.

Plants that possess particular genes or quantitative trait loci (QTL) may be identified based on their genotype rather than their phenotype.

Introduction

Rice, being an important crop in India, there is a part to focus on improving rice production and productivity. A number of biotic and abiotic factors mostly referred as production constraints that affect the rice yield adversely and subsequently, needs an extraordinary consideration to the developing demand of continuously emerging population of India (Kumar and Jha, 2000). Abiotic stress has been estimated that more than half of the yield potential of major crops is mainly affected due to unfavourable growing environments such as drought (Cortina and Culianez-Macia, 2005). The current study was aimed to carry out to assess the impact of Pink pigmented facultative methylotrophs (PPFM) and plant growth promoters on mitigating drought stress effects in semi dry rice.

1. Blast
Pyricularia grisea
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Crop is susceptible to the disease during all stages of its growth, from seedling to grain formation stage.
• In young seedlings, lesions are generally of spindle shaped, however lesions of different sizes may also be observed.
• In the beginning the spots have yellowish margin and grayish centre. Later, the centres become whitish grey and disintegrate.
• Lesions are isolated in the beginning and afterwards they may soon coalesce. The distal portion of the leaves beyond the lesions may hang and drop off.
• In older plants, the disease appears on leaf blades with typical spindle shaped spots.
• Under congenial conditions, such spots enlarge, coalesce and form bigger lesions.
• Lesions are like those on the seedlings and are about 0.3-0.5 cm in breadth and 1-2 cm in length. Apices of the infected leaves beyond the lesions hang down and sometimes break.
• Stem infection causes blackening of the nodal region, penetrating into the tissues.

Newspapers remain a powerful medium for social advertising despite the digital revolution. Their tangible nature, credibility, and broad reach make them particularly effective for communicating social messages to diverse demographics. This chapter explores the principles, strategies, and techniques for designing impactful social advertisements specifically for newspaper publication

Understanding the Newspaper Medium

Newspapers offer unique characteristics that influence advertisement design. Unlike digital media, newspaper ads exist in a physical space with specific technical constraints and opportunities

Physical Properties

• Limited color options (full color, spot color, or black and white) • Variable paper quality affecting image reproduction • Fixed column layouts and standard size

Introduction
Bacteria are single-celled prokaryotic organisms that can be both beneficial and harmful to plants. While many bacteria play essential roles in soil health and plant nutrition, certain pathogenic bacteria can cause severe diseases, leading to significant agricultural losses. Understanding the characteristics, life cycles, and management strategies for bacterial plant pathogens is crucial for effective disease control.
Characteristics and Morphology of Phytopathogenic Bacteria
General Characteristics
Phytopathogenic bacteria possess unique features that distinguish them from non-pathogenic strains:
• Cell Structure: Bacterial cells lack a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Their genetic material is located in a single circular chromosome.
• Cell Wall Composition: Most phytopathogenic bacteria have a rigid cell wall composed of peptidoglycan, which provides structural support and protection. The composition of the cell wall varies, leading to classifications as Gram-positive or Gram-negative bacteria.

Sampling is the process of drawing a part of population supposed to be the representative of that population.

Types: Sampling process can be either random or non-random. Most frequently we use random sampling method in our studies. But sometimes the purpose of the study demands for non-random sampling in one or other phase of sampling (Example: When we want to study the impact of life skills development programme on the disabled female beneficiaries)

Abstract

Majority of basic research in our country has foundations in Universities and various Institutions linked to them. This paves way for discovering wilder varieties of the present known cereals and other food crops. Such findings help in bioprospecting the required gene/genetic material for the improvement of the existing crops. As per the Biodiversity Act of 2002, it is the responsibility of these institutions to document the same. But, as research scientists are geared to meet the challenges? Being used to socialistic system from the days of Independence where knowledge generated was open to everyone or closed and kept under the mountains of files, the TRIPS agreement has come as a shock. But the true impact of it was realized in 1999-2000, when the patent amendments were taken up. The private institution/ companies went into the act immediately.  We in the University neither were slow to react nor were we prepared to take the shock.  In this paper some of the problems pertaining to IPR and scenario of Indian Universities and Institutions in this regard were highlighted.

Abstract

Lentil is an important pulse crop and play very important role in the supply of the protein to under nourished vegetarian population of the country. Fusarium wilt of lentil caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lentis is one of the wide spread and destructive diseases in India under rice-based cropping system. Use of synthetic fungicides has led to the emergence of several problems like environment pollution, residual effect in grains and killing of non-target organism(s). Hence, for minimizing the losses caused by Fusarium wilt, four plant extracts such as Garlic, Neem, Eucalyptus, Tulsi and three antagonistic bio-agents viz. Trichoderma viride, Trichoderma harzianum and Pseudomonas fluorescence were evaluated in vitro. The results clearly showed that all plant extracts were more or less inhibitory to mycelial growth of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lentis. The effectiveness of extracts increased with increase of their concentration and maximum growth inhibition was obtained in Eucalyptus followed by Garlic and Tulsi. While minimum per cent inhibition was recorded in Neem. Among bio-agents, T. viride showed maximum growth inhibition of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lentis followed by T. harzianum at both 4 and 7 days incubation period.

Any new variety produced by the Scientist has to be multiplied to many times to meet the needs of the farmers. In order to ensure the availability of quality seeds, Government of India have enacted Seed Act 1966 and Seed Rules, 1968. The Seed (Control) order 1983 was promulgated under essential commodities act, 1955 in order to ensure the production, marketing and distribution of the seeds.

1. SEED ACT 1966

The objective of Seed Act is for regulating the quality of certain notified kind / varieties of seeds for sale and for matters connected therewith. The Seed Act passed by the Indian Parliament in 1966 was designed to create a ‘climate’ in which the seeds man could operate effectively and to make good quality seed available to cultivators. Seed Rules under the Act were notified in September 1968 and the act was implemented in October 1969. This act extent to the whole of India and it has 25 sections.

Lotus being a national flower of India, is closely associated with religion and culture. It is a perennial, aquatic crop that is grown and consumed throughout Asia. The edible parts of lotus are Leaves, flowers, seeds and rhizomes, and the flowers are also used in religious ceremonies. Lotus flowers are also, used for extraction of perfumes. It is one of the oldest plants in the world Archaeologists in China found Lotus seeds with estimated ages of 5,000 years in 1972 in Yunnan Provincelagoons.

During the pre-historic period, the South India Dravidians used lotus flowers (pundarika) as their food, much earlier than the people of the Indus Valley civilization (3000-2000 BC). However, there is no evidence of lotus being present during the Indus Valley culture of the Mohenjo Daro and Harappa period in northern India. The Rigveda reference that lotus was made by the Aryans (2000-1500 BC) wherein it is also mention that lotus can be used as food. Subsequently, lotus was mentioned in the Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, Slokas, plays and other ancient Sanskrit literature. The lotus symbol is not only mentioned in the scriptures of Hinduism but it also occurs in the Buddhist and Jainism literature.

In the Arthasastra (350-300 BC) by Kautilya, the great diplomat during the golden age of Chandra Gupta, it is recorded that one of the varieties of sandal wood possesses the fragrance of lotus. The Mughal kings were also attracted towards the beauty of lotus. While describing Agra, the Mughal king Jehangir (1605-1627 AD) in his memories Tuzuk-i-Jehangiri, mentioned a memorable scene of a tank full of exquisite red lotus flowers, the like of which he had not seen before.

• Fresh seeds germinate in 20-30 days giving as high as 90% germinate.
• An NPK mixture supplying 375g N + 202 P2O5+375kg o/tree gave the highest mean-field of 33 fruits/tree and 14.88 kg fruit/tree.
• Flowering planting after four years.
• Flower bud differentiation of at 40 leaves stage.
• Flowering time March-April after 7 weeks of fruit development.
• Mealybug attacks shoots and in between the fruit segments – 0.5% phosphamidon or dichlorvos.
• A virus transmitted by lace bug or mealybug causes pineapple wilt.
• Ripon normally can be stored at 5°C for six weeks.
• Suckers weighing 500-750g and slips weighing 300-400g are better for yield and quality.
• Pineapple exhibits vegetative parthenocarpy and self-incompatibility.
• This is non-climacteric fruit.
• Sunscald discord is due to exposure of fruit to sun rays. Multiple crown/ fasciations is another important disorder probably due to genetics/nutritional factors.
• It contains an enzyme known as Bromelin.

Introduction

Agricultural production system achieved a miracle by the way of green revolution which compactualized the potential of photoperiod and the thermo insensitive input responsive crop culture. The productive trends of food crops continued with increased fertilizer consumption, irrigation potential and improved agro-techniques. However science based intensive agriculture with intensive irrigation due to its inappropriate, inpropotional and ambitious approaches put the agriculture productivity on back foot. Because of these problems the arable land is facing the problem to sustain itself in terms of its capacity to produce desirable output. The scenario is further threatened with increase in climate change impact on various natural resources. The projected food crisis is on the card.