eChapters

Weeds are a serious menace and these reduce the quality and yield of crops substantially. Chemical as well as mechanical methods are being used to control the weeds. The weeding was traditionally done by “khurpa” up to mid 60s. This tool requires its operation in a sitting posture, which reduces the work rate. The use of long handled tools like “kasola” became popular because these allowed their operation in a standing posture, which increases the mobility and thus the work rate. Weeder is a mechanical device to remove the weeds (unwanted plants) from the cultivated crop. A wide variety of weeders are used in the countries, which may be categorized in three groups viz. manual weeder, animal or tractor drawn weeder and power weeder or self-propelled rotary weeder (Singh, 2007; Pandey et al., 1997; Pandey and Ganesan, 2005).

Introduction

The fast development of technology for increasing production ignoring the agroecosystem resulted in disturbed natural cycles. The result is visible in terms of unsustainabiliity in agroecosystem. In addition, increasing use of chemical pesticides for the management of soil-borne plant pathogens had caused pollution of soil, surface and ground water besides affecting the crop produce and ecosystem. The pendulum of public opinion once so favourable to chemical control has gone against chemicals and advocated phasing out the chemical pesticides. Revival of the natural balance is therefore needed for sustainable farming with eco-friendly methods such as bioagents/biopesticides, soil solarization, botanicals, etc. Organic farming is one such approach which emphasis on maintaining the natural cycle with eco-friendly approaches.

There are six nutrients which are very important to animal body and they are – Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Minerals, Vitamins and water.

Carbohydrates: These are polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone as in monosaccharide or polymers in oligo or polysaccharides. The question arises whether carbohydrate is a dietaryessential !!! Carbohydratemay not be dietary essential but it is definitely metabolically essential. The organic compounds – fats, proteins are oxidized only in the presence of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are the structural components of DNA, RNA, and some other vital organic molecules. Although less than 1% is present in the human body (because constantly being formed and broken down in metabolism), yet without the presence of this carbohydrate, the existence of living creature is at stake.

Carbohydrate in the form of glucose primarily provides energy in the body and excess amount of carbohydrate is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscle. More than fifty per cent of the energy value of the diet is provided by carbohydrate.

Glucose + 6O₂ → 6 CO₂ + 6H₂O + Δ E (675 k.cal)

They also exhibit protein sparing action because proteins are mainly required for tissue-building i.e. general wear and tear in the body. If there is any emergency, say animal is deficient in calories of the diet, then it will use adipose and protein tissues. It is said that proteins and fats are burnt or oxidized in the flame of carbohydrate.It means thatcertain intermediarycompounds of glucose oxidation through krebscycle are absolutely necessary for oxidation of proteins and fats. Again, in any emergency, if glucose level of the body goes down, fats and proteins take over and they get metabolized faster than the animal body

Introduction

Aquaculture has developed quickly over the last three decades to turn into important economic activity world wide. It has been attracting heavy investment due to the availability of sound technologies and limitless potential for export especially shrimp. There are several forecasts on demand for aquatic foods and it is expected that it will be 183 million tonnes by 2030. As the capture fishery production is stagnating at around 90 million tonnes, aquaculture is seen as the only alternative to bridge the widening gap in demand and supply. Globally, Landings from worldwide aquaculture has increased 10-15 % per year in the last two decades and this growth was due to the combined effects of scientific farming, availability of infrastructure facilities, changing consumer preferences and export market potential to developed countries.

Shrimp farming is relatively new and its introduction on a commercial scale can be traced to the early seventies. Despite the recent introduction, one third of the world shrimp production is from farmed shrimp. The shrimp producing countries are found in all regions based on FAO statistics including Europe and Middle East. The major to five shrimp producing countries are China, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, and India. The future increase in world aquaculture production will be driven by China with South Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean and the Europe providing small increases.

The global human population is increasing exponentially with time, and it is expected to reach 9.6 billion by 2050 (UN 2013). With rapid population growth, food consumption is predicted to more than double in the next 40 years. Due to limited land resources for cultivation and a stabilising trend in agricultural productivity, the role of livestock sector is increasing significantly to meet the rising food demand. Meanwhile, global livestock production has increased significantly in both number and productivity. Unprecedented urbanisation has a significant impact on food consumption patterns in general, as well as demand for livestock products. Animal diseases are a significant factor in reducing livestock productivity, particularly in developed countries. The limitations of traditional animal breeding hinder further improvement of livestock productivity. The use of biotechnological tools has major applications in improving animal health and production, increasing disease resistance, using assisted reproductive techniques, improving rapid diagnostic techniques, and improving vaccines in livestock systems. These interventions cover advancements in feeding, nutrition, genetics, reproduction, animal health control, and overall improvement of animal husbandry. Since genomic tools and selection have been widely adopted in developed countries to improve both productivity and quality of animal products, the prospects for increasing productivity in developing countries using genomic tools and selection have not been adequately investigated.

Vegetable crops belonging to the family Cucurbitaceae are known as cucurbits. These include 950 species in over 90 genera, mainly distributed in the tropics and subtropics (Schaefer and Renner, 2011). Enormous diversity of cucurbit genetic resources has evolved in past centuries to cater the nutritional requirements of people in different geographical and climatic regions. A large number of cucurbitaceous vegetables coming from different centres of origin are cultivated worldwide (Table 1). However, these crops are challenged by several biotic and abiotic stresses. Cultivated varieties are constrained by market demands, the necessity for climatic adaptations, domestication bottlenecks, and in most cases, limited capacity for interspecific hybridization, creating narrow genetic bases for crop improvement. Genetic resources are the building block for any crop improvement programme and includes landraces, traditional varieties, wild, weedy and other related species constituting primary, secondary and tertiary gene pools. They are valuable sources of important genetic traits needed for developing resilient and climate smart crop varieties and therefore, important for food security. The success and pace of the development depends on the efficient use of plant genetic resources. Wild relatives are incredible genetic resources carrying several desirable attributes like nutritional quality, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses etc. Most of the crop wild relatives of cultivated crops across the world are not receiving adequate attention for their effective utilization in breeding programs. It is therefore, of utmost priority to protect them in the wild, through in-situ conservation, where they can continue to evolve and develop these useful adaptations. ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (ICAR-NBPGR) is the nodal agency for the management of national wealth of vegetable genetic resources speciallyworking for collections, characterization, identification and documentation of new germplasm. Besides, it also bears the responsibility for conservation of the germplasm for future through sustainable use. The Vegetable germplasm is being conserved both under in-situ and ex-situ genebanks. This chapter highlights the status of Cucurbit genetic resources and procedures to access the germplasm by various stakeholders for research use.
 

The content presented in this chapter is exploratory and reflects emerging trends in integrating weather intelligence with decision support systems. The term “weather intelligence” is introduced as a framework, with ongoing research expected to further refine and expand upon these ideas as technologies evolve. In an era where climate variability and extreme weather events increasingly threaten global food systems, the integration of advanced decision support systems (DSS) with what we are now calling weather intelligence has emerged as a transformative paradigm. This chapter explores how food production— encompassing agriculture, fisheries, and animal husbandry—can harness integrated weather intelligence to inform real-time crisis management, strategic planning, and risk mitigation. The discussion is exploratory in many respects, as the concept of weather intelligence represents an innovative framework that challenges traditional forecasting methods and decision support tools (Fig. 9.1). Drawing on multidisciplinary research and practical case studies, we examine the building blocks of decision support systems tailored to food production. We then discuss the integration of weather intelligence into crisis response and strategic planning, highlighting both established risk mitigation approaches and emerging tools designed to anticipate and respond to extreme weather events. By contextualizing these developments within the broader scope of sustainable food production, this chapter offers an in-depth analysis and a forward-looking vision for decision support and response management in a rapidly changing climate.

Growing food demand requires increased agricultural productivity, but climate change poses serious challenges to crop protection and food security. Rising temperatures, elevated carbon dioxide, altered precipitation, droughts, floods and extreme weather events directly affect crops and indirectly influence pests, pathogens and their natural enemies. Changes in climatic conditions can alter insect development, survival, reproduction, seasonal activity, geographical distribution and pest status. They may also disrupt host–pest relationships, encourage invasive species and contribute to the decline or displacement of existing species. This chapter examines climate-induced changes in crop-pest scenarios and emphasizes the importance of monitoring, forecasting and adaptive pest-management strategies for protecting agricultural production.

Introduction

Vegetable crops are an important component of Indian Agriculture. They are known for their short cycle and high productivity per unit area providing a valuable source of income leading to improve livelihood. The prosperity and advancement of a nation largely depend on achieving nutritional security to its people. The vegetables play a vital role as major supplement to food and nutritional security of our people. They are important source of nutrients like b- carotene, vitamin B, C, E as well as folic acid, iron, magnesium, etc. and they also supply fair amounts of carbohydrate, protein, fiber, antioxidants and energy.

Introduction

Aquaculture and Zoonotic Diseases

Diseases that can transfer from wild or domestic animals to humans are referred to zoonosis (Fig 1). Zoonosis also includes biotoxin producing agents from fish to human beings which is well documented. There are a number of pathogens which spread from fish and shellfish to human and other domestic animals causing diseases.There are also many other infectious organisms of fish origin that have not been reported but have potential to infect and harm man. Zoonotic diseases originated from fish and shellfish have been documented in the past mostly from wild caught fish and shellfish. However, in the last 30 years as the capture fisheries is declining and aquaculture is growing steadily worldwide, zoonotic incidences from the latter are increasing.

Aquaculture growing at 6-7% annually world over including India is contributing to 50-60% of total fish production today. Additionally, aquarium industry is booming worldwide. Therefore,incidences and scale of zoonosis due to aquaculture are quite different from that from capture or wild fisheries. Disease outbreaks in cultured fish are often by pathogens indigenous to aquatic environment. In aquaculture, disease outbreaks are associated with quality and quantity of nutrients and high stocking density which increase pathogen load leading to easy transmission to human. Apparently healthy fishes may also harbor bacterial pathogens, especially in their kidneys and intestines. World Health Organisation (WHO) considers many diseases in aquatic animals as emerging type. Emerging diseases appear in a population for the first time or it may have been existed before, but is now increasing rapidly. Usually information on zoonotic potential of emerging diseases is limited which is essential to disseminate to human health managers. Potential biological contamination of aquaculture products can occur from bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasites and biotoxins. The location of the farm, the species being farmed, water temperature, husbandry systems, postharvest processing, and habits in food preparation and consumption are among the main factors influencing the zoonotic risk associated with aquatic animals and their products.

Introduction
In the past, the approach to disaster management was relief-focused and restricted to helping the area affected by the disaster. involves a continuous and integrated process of organizing, coordinating, and putting into action measures that are required or advantageous for preventing danger or threats, mitigating risk or its severity or consequences, building capacity through research and knowledge management, being ready to deal with any disaster, responding quickly to any situation that poses a threat to the community, determining the extent or severity of effects, evacuation, rescue and relief efforts, rehabilitation, and reconstruction.
Phases and Elements in Disaster Management
I. Pre-disaster phase: There are three components to the pre-disaster phase: preparedness, mitigation, and prevention.
II. The aftermath phase, encompassing response, recuperation, and restoration. All these components are connected by a structure of institutions and legislation.

Introduction
The genetic diversity of crops has been subjected to considerable humandriven selection throughout time, in particular, is often limited by conventional plant breeding techniques. Under these conditions, crops with low yields and a high risk of disease and pest infestation may be produced. Thus, there’s a need to introduce a technique where solutions to all the problems can be addressed. CIS breeding opens us a wider range of opportunities for improving crops by enabling the deliberate incorporation of natural genetic differences from closely related plants. The word “CIS” in CIS breeding means “on the same side/same kingdom”. CIS breeding is an advanced method for genetic improvement in which genes from closely related plants are inserted into the desired crop. This method creates crop varieties that are greatly improved in terms of growth capacity, yield potential and pest and disease resistance. CIS breeding is a pioneering technology designed to integrate novel traits into established crop varieties without the introduction of foreign genetic material. Utilizing the similar gene combinations and the plant’s intrinsic genetic systems, it is a natural form of genetic improvement that improves traits including yield, drought resistance, disease resistance and nutritional qualities (Anjanppa and Gruissem, 2021). Comparing to conventional breeding where gene transfer can occur through random cross- breeding or mutagenesis and risk of unintended effects are high, in CIS breeding, one or few genes are transferred from related species as well as risk of unintended effects are also low. Some countries, regulate it as conventional breeding and other regulate it as GMO breeding.

Climate change produces long-term alterations in temperature, precipitation, wind and atmospheric carbon dioxide. Because insects are ectothermic organisms, these environmental changes strongly influence their physiology, ecology and behaviour. Rising temperatures can modify development, movement, feeding, mating, reproduction, diapause, migration and survival. Altered rainfall and extreme weather may affect habitat suitability, host availability and interactions with natural enemies. Climate-related behavioural changes can influence pest abundance, crop damage, geographical distribution and the timing of infestations. This chapter examines how insects respond behaviourally to changing environmental conditions and explains why understanding these responses is essential for forecasting pest outbreaks and developing effective climate-resilient crop-protection strategies.

The rhizosphere is the narrow zone of soil surrounding the root that is under the immediate influence of the root system. This zone is rich in nutrients when compared with the bulk soil, due to the accumulation of a variety of organic compounds released from roots by exudation, secretion and deposition. Organic compounds released by plant roots include amino acids, fatty acids, nucleotides, organic acids, phenolics, plant growth regulators, putrescine, sterols, sugars and vitamins. Because these organic compounds can be used as carbon and energy source by microorganisms, microbial growth and activity is particularly intense in the rhizosphere.

ABSTRACT

This paper discusses IPR concepts in the light of Indian culture and issues emanating from enforcement of those concepts in developing countries such as India.

INTRODUCTION

The adage “Knowledge is wealth” suits the present era well than any other period. India is known for its innovative thoughts since ages. However, it never monopolized the knowledge it possessed. In India, the knowledge of a person is thought to be utilized for the benefit of the society as an obligation of the knowledge holder. Does this mindset of Universal humanity (Vasudevo Kudumbagam) and common good (Sarva Sugino Bavandu) would benefit us in the materialistic society? This paper is an attempt to answer this query.

Abstract

Ghee means the pure clarified fat derived solely from milk or curd or from desi (cooking) butter or from cream to which no coloring matter or preservative has been added. It is the second largest dairy product prepared from milk and it is almost 35% of total milk production. Unfortunately, the producers or the middle- men involved in the ghee trade, tend to adulterate ghee with cheaper oils and fats like vegetable oils, animal body fats, hydrogenated fats and sometimes even the non-edible mineral oils, especially during lean season to earn more money. Recently, the problem of adulteration has assumed a very serious dimension. Such a situation has tarnished the image of dairy industry. Methods presently adopted by food law enforcing agencies to ensure the quality of ghee are mainly based on the physico- chemical constants, but all these methods have some limitations. So researchers are always in search of different innovative methods to check the quality of ghee.

Livestock is one of the fastest growing agricultural subsectors in developing countries. In India has a vast diversity of animal genetic resources. Among them, sheep is an important ‘five star’ livestock species contributing significantly to rural economy through production of mutton, wool, manure, skin and milk etc. Sheep make a valuable contribution to the livelihood of the economically weaker sections of the society. The total Livestock population is 535.78 million and total sheep population is 74.26 million in in the country showing an increase of 4.6% and 14.1%, respectively over Livestock Census-2012. And it’s ranking 3rd in the world after China and Australia. Rajasthan is the fourth largest sheep rearing state in India with 7.9 million population (Livestock Census, 2019). Malpura sheep is one amongst the heaviest sheep breed of India, widely distributed in the semi-arid region of Rajasthan, mostly Tonk, Jaipur and Sawai Madhopur districts. Malpura sheep is reared and improved for mutton production since year 1975 at CSWRI, Avikanagar. The objective since then has been to improve the growth characteristics of this sheep breed for producing more carcass yield.The sheep is known for its adaptability to the harsh environment and potential for high meat production.Coat colour of Malpura sheep is white with coarse wool. The face is light brown with short, blunt ears. Animals have square compact body and long legs. Farmers also have liking for the long tail of animals for aesthetic purpose. The farmers like Malpura sheep for its properties like good mothering ability and produce sufficient milk to sustain and accelerate the growth of their neonates (Mishra et al., 2005), higher weight gain, number of lambs weaned, wool quality, walking capacity and the ease of management.

Introduction
Current state of global warming and climate change affecting crops through altered pest and disease incidence patterns, changes in temperature and CO2 levels which adversely affected the crop production (Habib-ur-Rahman et al. 2022). This threat is particularly pronounced in food-insecure regions, especially in Asian countries. Climate change not only jeopardizes crop and livestock health but also impacts soil and water resources and livelihood of rural communities. Furthermore, it contributes to food insecurity by increasing prices and reducing overall food production. The complexity of these effects highlights the need for modern agricultural techniques to mitigate risks and ensure global food security (Habib-ur-Rahman et al. 2018).
Crop improvement, an integral facet of agricultural development, remains a cornerstone in addressing the burgeoning global food demands. Conventional plant breeding methods have played a pivotal role in developing improved crop varieties that exhibit enhanced quality, higher yields and resilience to biotic and abiotic stresses. However, plant breeding methods involving continuous selection and intermating among closely related individuals can result in a reduction of genetic diversity within a cultivated crop species. The narrow genetic base makes crops more vulnerable to emerging threats, such as new pests or diseases and limits their ability to cope with changing climatic conditions. In India, the Green Revolution along with substantial plant breeding activities, led to a significant increase in crop yields, particularly in staple crops like wheat, rice and maize. However, one of the major consequences of green revolution is the development of narrow genetic base in cultivated crop species (Begna 2021).
Moreover, the reliance on a narrow genetic base, a consequence of crossing only two parents, curtails the exploration of broader genetic diversity. This limitation restricts the potential for effectively combining and expressing desired traits in the resulting crop varieties. Most of conventional plant breeding techniques were primarily focused on monogenic traits, while many agronomically important traits are quantitative in nature, controlled by polygenes, and influenced by the environment. This poses challenges for breeders relying only on phenotypic selection. Notably, traits influenced by multiple genes, such as resistance to diseases or tolerance to environmental stresses, are particularly challenging to manipulate using traditional breeding methods.
Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) are genomic regions that influence polygenic traits, first described by Geldermann (1975). Identifying QTLs associated with improving yield and quality traits is pivotal for catalysing a new Green Revolution (Arrones et al. 2020; Pradhan et al. 2015). Marker-assisted selection (MAS), introgression breeding and QTL pyramiding offer efficient avenues for developing improved cultivars. However, identifying QTLs associated with quantitative traits remains a challenge for plant breeders (Arrones et al. 2020). The basic requirement for the detection of QTLs involves appropriate mapping population, marker systems, phenotyping methods and suitable experimental designs (Arrones et al. 2020; Collard et al. 2005)

Large quantities of crop residues are produced and if properly used, they can provide cost effective means for supplying organic matter, plant nutrients and improved soil health. The highly lignocellulosic nature of crop residues indicate their potential role in maintaining soil organic matter and enriching the soils with N-rich microbial biomass resulting from decompositions. However, their indiscriminate handling often burning leads to decline in soil health, air pollution and overall loss. Since most crop residues find use as feed and fuel, efficient recycling of the remaining amount can have very significant
and positive effect.
The data regarding five major crops are shown. Even after use of some of them as animal feed they offer a great opportunity of using them back in to the soils which are hungry for organic carbon and other matters. Practice of Crop Residue Burning
The problem of collection and transport of crop residue and the short timebetween harvesting of one crop and making the farm free for the second crop has led to the harmful practices of crop residue burning. If instead of burning it, the residues can be incorporated into soils, a host of heterotrophic microorganisms bring about minor discharge of carbon and other elements contained in plant residues. A large increases in beneficial soil microbial populations and organic carbon can be achieved

Indian rivers are characterized by diverse hydrological and geomorphological features essential to their ecological integrity. These rivers can be classified into perennial and seasonal categories, with the former, such as the Ganges and Brahmaputra, maintaining continuous flow due to snowmelt and rainfall. In contrast, seasonal rivers exhibit significant fluctuations in water levels, particularly during the monsoon. The interplay of hydrological dynamics facilitates sediment transport, influencing the physical characteristics of riverbanks and floodplains. Geomorphologically, rivers from the Himalayas typically display steep gradients, leading to deep gorges and distinct aquatic habitats, while those flowing through plains develop wider, meandering channels. Anthropogenic activities, including dam construction and urbanization, have profoundly impacted these hydrological and geomorphological processes, resulting in habitat degradation and alterations in water quality. Understanding these features is crucial for effectively conserving and managing India's river ecosystems, which are vital for supporting biodiversity and human livelihoods.