eChapters

INTRODUCTION

The terms agro-forestry and farm forestry are used interchangeably in India with respect to the establishment and/or management of trees on farms for productive purposes. It also particularly recognizes the use of trees and shrubs on farms to support agricultural production, protect soil and water resources, enhance biodiversity, sequester carbon, and improve landscape values. Lundgren (1982) defined “Agroforestry as a collective name for land use systems and technologies where woody perennials are deliber-ately used on the same land unit as agricultural crops and/or animals, either in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence. In agroforestry systems there are both economical and ecological interactions between the different components”. It has been proposed that including a tree component within the farming system, either on bunds and boundaries (sequentially with crops) or intercropped in an agroforestry type configuration, can lead to increased land productivity while diversifying the farming enterprise (Atta-Krah et al. 2004; Huxley 1999; Young 1989), and increase economic security for small farmers (Russell and Franzel 2004).

Approaches to study subject matter of economics
There are two approaches to study subject matter of economics-
1. Traditional Approach
2. Modern Approach
Economics studies human economic activities, which involve the creation, use, exchange, and distribution of wealth.
1. Traditional Approach
This approach splits economic activities into four interconnected areas:
Consumption, Production, Exchange, and Distribution (CPED).
1. Consumption – Using Goods & Services
Consumption refers to the utilization of goods and services to satisfy human needs and wants. It involves the destruction of utility, meaning that once a good or service is consumed, it cannot be reused in its original form i.e. once used, their original form is gone (utility destroyed) Economics studies the nature of human wants, their characteristics, and how individuals make consumption decisions.

Abstract

DNA barcoding, an additional global standard taxonomic tool for identifying plant species helps the non-taxonomists also to identify the plant species in a more reliable way with the help of devices including nanotechnology. Researchers proposed various genes or gene portions as potential barcodes either singly or in combination, yet there is no standard/ universal barcode DNA region for plants. The more accurate plant DNA barcode region would have to be from highly variable markers in the nuclear genome preferably from multiple loci and in combination with variable DNA regions of chloroplast genome, to resolve the problems that arise due to hybridization, allopolyploidization and introgression. Nonetheless, the phylogenetically informative sites might not be the potential DNA barcode regions as the former requires synapomorphies unlike autapomorphies with high levels of informative characters in the latter DNA taxonomy, but could provide insights into genetic distances between species.

Before the turn of present century, it was considered that carbohydrates, fats, proteins and minerals were sufficient for fulfilling the nutritional needs of animals. Later it was recognised that several other factors also need to be provided in the diet in small quantities, the absence of which resulted in diseases like beriberi, scurvy, pellagra and rickets. Funk in 1912 proposed the term vitamine for such factors, vita for being essential and amine because these factors were thought to be amines in chemical structure. Later it was discovered that not all such factors were amines, hence the last ‘e’ from the word vitamine was dropped.

The quantities of vitamins needed by the body are small, in the range of milligrams or micrograms. For this reason these compounds are also known as accessory foodstuffs. Thus vitamins came to be regarded as essential dietary factors which are required by an organism in small quantities and whose absence results in deficiency diseases. Many of these vitamins acts as coenzymes in important metabolic reactions of the body.

The vitamins have been broadly classified on the basis of their solubility. Fat soluble vitamins - A, D, E and K. Water soluble vitamins- B complex and C. This classification has proved useful from the functional point of view also for an extended period of time and is now an established classification scheme. The water soluble vitamins cannot be stored in the body over extended periods of time during periods of opulence and used during periods of scarcity.

Most vitamins cannot be synthesized by the body hence the need for dietary supplement. However, ruminants, have an advantage in that the rumen microorganisms can manufacture most of the B-complex vitamins which are utilized and required by the animal. Vitamin C is required only by human beings and guinea pig, hence is not of importance as a dietary ingredient for the domestic animals. Most other animals are able to synthesize adequate amounts of vitamin C required by them. The site of synthesis of vitamin C is not well established but it seems that the intestinal tract, liver and adrenal glands are actively involved.

At this stage it should be clarified about the dietary and physiological requirements. All vitamins are physiologically required by the domestic animals but only a few are required to be a essential dietary ingredient.

Atmosphere can be defined as the gaseous envelope surrounding the earth. It is retained by earth’s gravity. The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 × 10¹⁸ kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface. The imaginary ‘Karman line’ lies at an altitude of 100 km above the earth’s sea level, and commonly represents the boundary between the earth’s atmosphere and outer space. The study of earth’s atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science or ‘aerology’.

1. Introduction

Energy balance means keeping an account of how the flow of energy is taking place in and out of any system or process. It helps the engineers to estimate the total energy requirement and identify the area for conservation of energy in any process. In food processing the concept of energy balance is applicable in unit operation such as blanching, drying, evaporation, freezing, refrigeration, distillation, crystallization. The scopes of energy balance in food industry are:

i) Streamlining and reduction of energy consumption in the existing process.

ii) Selection and sizing of any equipment and process.

iii) Economic analysis of alternate process/technology.

iv) Designing new economically viable process/technology

Introduction
Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) are a quality system concerned with the organizational process and the conditions under which non-clinical health and environmental safety studies are planned, performed, monitored, recorded, archived, and reported. GLP ensures the quality and integrity of the study process rather than the scientific validity of the study itself. It provides a framework for ensuring that data generated in non-clinical safety studies are reliable and reproducible, thereby facilitating the mutual acceptance of data by regulatory authorities worldwide (OECD, 1998; US EPA, 2016). GLP represents a structured quality system designed to ensure the consistency and reliability of non-clinical safety studies. It establishes a framework encompassing organizational processes and laboratory conditions, with a focus on:
1. Systematic Study Conduct: GLP mandates a methodical approach to the planning, execution, supervision, recording, reporting, and archiving of studies.
2. Data Integrity Assurance: The primary objective is to guarantee the dependability of data generated, thereby fostering confidence in safety assessments.
3. Regulatory Compliance Support: GLP facilitates adherence to regulatory standards, enabling the acceptance of study findings by authorities worldwide.
4. Non-Clinical Safety Focus: It specifically applies to studies that precede human clinical trials, particularly those evaluating the potential hazards of chemical substances (OECD, 1998).
In veterinary and allied fields, GLP extends beyond general scientific rigor to address the unique challenges of animal health, food safety, and environmental protection related to animal populations. It ensures the reliability and traceability of data generated in studies related to veterinary pharmaceuticals, feed additives, diagnostics, and environmental toxicology involving animals. The focus is on maintaining the integrity of studies that directly impact animal welfare, public health, and agricultural sustainability (World Organization for Animal Health, 2018; FDA, 2010). In the context of veterinary medicine or treatment aspects, GLP in veterinary refers to a a well organised quality system that governs the organization and conditions under which non-clinical studies related to animal health and safety are planned, performed, monitored, recorded, reported, and archived. This includes:

Introduction

Biodiversity provides enormous direct economic benefits, an array of indirect essential services through natural ecosystems, and plays a prominent role in modulating ecosystem function and stability. It provide farming systems and taxa the means to recycle nutrient, reduce insect, pest and disease problems, control weed, maintain good water and soil conditions, handle climate stresses while producing commodities necessary for human survival. It is estimated that 1400 m ha of croplands and agro-ecosystem may provide ecosystem services worth US$ 92 ha-1 per year in pollination, biological control, and food production amounting to total US $ 128 x 109 per year (Costanza 1997). Moreover, Thrupp (1997) explained several benefits provided through conservation of biodiversity (Figure 1). The animal and plant diversity and the knowledge of associated management of these resources are the assets with the farmers which are important in marginal and difficult farm conditions. Higher diversity allows greater access to available resources, and hence increased net primary production and decreased nutrient losses. Diversity management can constitute a central part of livelihood management strategies of farmers and communities in different production system (Rege et al. 2003). The multifunctional services of biodiversity in amelioration of agro-ecosystems as given in Table 1 have also been emphasized by both the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) and the International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development (2008). 

7.1. Rice

7.1.1. Blast

Magnaporthe oryzae (formerly Magnaporthe grisea) anamorph: (Pyricularia oryzae)

Soil Organic Matter

Soil organic matter plays an important role in the maintenance and improvement of soil properties. It is a dynamic material and is one of the major sources of nutrient elements for plants. Soil organic matter is derived to a large extent from residues and remains of the plants together with the small quantities of animal remains excreta, and microbial tissues. Soil organic matter is composed of three major components i.e. plant residues, animal remains and dead remains of microorganisms. Soil organic matter comprises residues of plants and animals and these compounds occur in soil in close combination with inorganic substances. Animals and plant residues are made up of complex carbohydrates, simple sugars, starch, cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, gums, mucilage, proteins fats, oils, waxes, resins, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, organic acids, lignin, phenols, tannins, hydrocarbons, alkaloids, pigments, etc.

The organic matter subjected to microbial decay in the soil comes from several sources like plant remains, forest litter, incorporation of plant tissues, animal tissues, and excretory products. The chemistry of organic matter is very complex, and investigations of the transformations and the responsible organisms have therefore been extremely interesting. The organic constituents of the plants are commonly divided into six categories.

Natural resources are naturally occurring resources which can be exploited for economic gain. They include raw materials such as fuels, minerals and metals, soil, water, air, sunlight, land, biomass and ecosystems. Natural resources also include living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) materials. Natural resources are gifts of nature for the humankind.

Introduction

Ante mortem diagnosis of cardio vascular diseases in avian patients is a challenging to the physician. Compare with the mammals, few anatomical and physiological features are unique in birds. The avian heart is anatomically similar to mammals, although birds have a proportionally larger heart size relative to a comparably sized mammal. Heart size in mammals remains equivalent to body mass, while larger birds have a proportionally smaller hearts in relation to body size than smaller birds. The apex of the heart is enclosed between the right and left hepatic lobes and lies along the sternum and parallel to the thoracic spine in the cranio ventral coelom. The avian cardiovascular system is adapted to the high aerobic requirements for flight, running or swimming. Efficient oxygen transfer to the tissues is facilitated by a lower total peripheral resistance, higher heart rate, higher arterial blood pressure and more rapid myocardial depolarization. The clinical signs seen in birds afflicted with cardiac disease can be vague and non-specific which are mimicking many other disease conditions. Similar to mammals, birds may present with lethargy, weakness, exercise intolerance, syncope, dyspnoea, coughing and even sudden death. On physical examination cardiac disease may be suspected based on the presence of arrhythmia, murmur, muffled cardiac sounds, poor peripheral pulses, cyanosis and coelomic distension. Pulmonary oedema, hepatomegaly, ascites and enlarged jugular veins with pulsation may be seen in cases of congestive cardiac failure. Pericarditis can occur with primary infectious agents or secondary to disease occurring in adjacent tissues, such as mycotic pulmonary granulomas. Visceral gout due to hyperuricaemia may also affect the pericardium. Congestive heart failure and systemic manifestations of disease, such as hypoproteinaemia, may result in effusions within the pericardium. Myocardial ventricular hypertrophy can occur with any condition that results in an elevated preload on the heart, including pulmonary hypertension and atherosclerosis. Myocarditis has been observed in cases of chlamydiosis, polyomavirus infection and proventricular dilatation disease from bornavirus. Heavy metal toxicosis has been associated with cardiac neural dysfunction and myocardial infarction. Vegetative endocarditis and resultant valvular insufficiency can occur with bacteraemia from chronic bacterial infections involving other organ systems.

Introduction
Heat treatment is the most commonly used method in the dairy industry for milk processing. Its primary objective is to eliminate pathogens and reduce spoilage-causing organisms, ensuring milk is safe for consumption and has a longer shelf life. While advanced methods like high-pressure processing, pulsed electric fields, ultrasound processing, cold plasma treatment, and ultraviolet sterilization have emerged, heat treatment remains the preferred choice due to its simplicity, reliability, and proven effectiveness. All dairy products undergo some form of heating during processing, whether through pasteurization, sub-pasteurization (e.g., for milk used in aged cheeses), or sterilization. To facilitate this, liquid heating systems such as continuous heat exchangers or jacketed tanks are widely used, typically powered by steam or steam-heated water. Consequently, steam generation boilers are a standard feature in almost all dairy processing facilities.
The Key Objectives of Heat Treatment Include
1. Elimination of harmful pathogens in milk, ensuring it is safe for consumption and protecting public health.
2. Increasing the keeping quality of milk by reducing the number of spoilage organisms.
3. Inactivating enzymes naturally present in milk or secreted by microorganisms to prevent enzymatic degradation.
4. Preventing the autoxidation of lipids, which can lead to off-flavors and spoilage.
5. Inactivating agglutinin to reduce rapid creaming and maintain uniform consistency.
6. Enhancing the growth of starter cultures by eliminating natural inhibitors and dissolved oxygen in milk, essential for producing cheese and fermented products.

19.1 Introduction
Mulberry silkworm, Bombyx mori, is affected by a number of diseases caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa. These illnesses are recognized to occur in practically every region where silkworms are raised in the world seriously harming the harvest of silkworm cocoons. Several actions have been proposed as a means of preventing and managing the illnesses, but none of them had shown signs of foolproof with the outcome that one must consistently be cautious to eradicate the core infection’s source in addition to avoiding crossinfection. Additionally, care has to be taken in order to ensure that they are not exposed to stressful circumstances such as low temperature and inadequate nourishment, poor ventilation, and humidity which could lead them easily susceptible to various diseases.
19.2 Diseases of Mulberry Silkworm and Their Control
19.2.1 Protozoan Diseases
The protozoa that harm silkworms are the parasitic ones from the genera Nosema, Pleistophora, and Thelohania and class Microsporidia. In addition to this, reports of Leptomonas and Trypanosoma infections in the silkworm
Bombyx mori L. have been made. However, the pebrine disease is the main protozoan illness of the silkworm. It is also known as ‘pepper disease’ because of the development of areas of black pepper after infection.

Cycads refer a group of plants belonging to the families Cycadaceae, Stangeriaceae and Zamiaceae as per recent classification. They belong to a specialized group of plants having ancient linkage. These are the most primitive of living gymnosperms and most ancient of all plants surviving today. Present day Cycads are mere remnants of numerous massive sorts that flourished during the end of Triassic era and belong to the Jurassic period.

Cycads include 11 genera and nearly 300 species distributed in the tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions of the world. Substantial number of species is found in South Africa, Australia, South America, Central America, Caribbean Islands and Asia. There are natural hybrids also as reported from South Africa and Australia. Horticultural Importance

Cycads are curious and interesting both botanically and horticulturally all over the world. Their evergreen plam-like appearance with arching leaves from the crown looks graceful and ornamental. They are often mistaken with palm and tree ferns due to their structural similiraity. The distinctive forms emerged out of non-conventional stems and evergreen foliage is the main attraction. Primitive shapes of the Cycads are appealing to the landscapers. They are extensively used as a pot plant for indoor decoration and outdoor gardening. As Bonsai, Cycads exhibit a new style and formation. In horticultural trade, Cycads are in great demand and having high commercial value. Nowadays, a grown up specimen in large sized pot, may fetch several thousand rupees as price, which is very high in comparison to the other indoor plants. This is because of rarity, slow growing nature and graceful appearance of the cycads. Even the cut-leaves are in huge demand for various floral arrangements and decoration purpose. Therefore, Cycads are horticulturally very important and an essential component of present day landscaping. Selection of Plants

Many researchers successfully prepared synthetic seeds of crop plants. The major success of this technology is being elaborated in this chapter.

8.1. FIELD CROPS

Rice is the world’s most important food crop and a primary food source for more than one third of the world’s population. This crop has received considerable attention in biotechnology research progammes. Research in artificial seeds in rice is not scanty and this technology through somatic embryogenesis would offer a great scope for large-scale propagation of superior elite hybrids (Brar and Khush, 1994). However, success on artificial seeds research in field crops, especially cereals is still in infancy. However, many workers successfully encapsulated somatic and androgenic embryos of cereal crops (Datta and Potrykus, 1989; Suprasanna et al., 1996; Roy and Mandal, 2004 & 2008). Brar et al. (1994) emphasized the need for research on artificial seeds in rice through embryogenesis and outlined its impact on mass propagation of true-breeding hybrids. Somatic embryogenesis can also be used in the regeneration of genetically transformed plants (Vicient and Martinez, 1998). Subsequently those somatic embryos could be economically and successfully propagated though synthetic seed technology.

Abstract

Traditional knowledge on plants and their uses by tribal indigenous culture is helpful in the conservation of biodiversity. During 2017-2018, ethnobotanical investigations of the plants growing in Neelum Valley in District Bandipora (a part of Kashmir Himalaya) were carried out to collect information regarding different usages of the plants species growing in the region through questionnaire and interviews. Floristically, a total of 57 species belonging to 54 genera and 38 families were investigated to be used as medicine, food, fodder, timber, fuel wood, vegetable/edible fruit, resin yield and herbal tea purposes. On the basis of the floristic analysis of the study area, the leading family recorded was Asteraceae with (11%) species co-dominated by Rosaceae (9%). In terms of habit forms, herbaceous (70%) growth form is the most dominant. The most frequently used plant parts are leaves (26%) followed by whole plant (23%) and roots (19%). The plant documented cured different categories of diseases, the most common diseases such as diarrhea, fever, digestive problems, urinary troubles, rheumatism, eye diseases, skin diseases and wounds. Based on investigated knowledge, the data are discussed under sub-head as single, double and multi-diseases curing plants. The present study can provide a baseline data for future researchers, policy makers, common public, land managers, and the other stakeholders to develop scientifically-informed strategies for conservation of natural resources and sustainable use of plant resources in hotspot regions like Himalayas and other similar biodiversity rich sites.

Air in motion is called wind. Winds move moisture and heat around the world and also produce much of our weather. Winds are part of a global air circulation system that acts to balance temperature and pressure around the world. Any difference in temperature will always cause a difference in air pressure, and therefore, winds will blow. There are two types of movement in the atmosphere, horizontal movement and vertical movement. The term wind generally refers to the horizontal movement of air relative to the earth’s surface. Vertically moving air columns are called as currents. Upward and downward air currents are referred to as updrafts and downdrafts, respectively. Vertical motion in the atmosphere is of significance for the formation of clouds, precipitation and various types of storms. The horizontal differences in air pressure are far more variable than vertical changes and give rise to a wide range of air motions. Uneven distribution of pressure over the globe is balanced through the movement of winds. Winds also act as a means of transporting heat, moisture and other properties from one part of the earth to another.