eChapters

Introduction

The common mycorrhizal association in most of the plants is the arbuscular type occurring in the majority of agricultural and horticultural crops. Arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) are formed by non-septate Zygomycetous fungi belonging to the genera Glomus, Gigaspora, Acaulospora, Sclerocystis, Entrophospora, Scutellospora, Archaeospora and Paraglomus in the order Glomales. These fungi are obligate symbionts and have not been cultured on nutrient media. These endophytes are not host specific although evidence is growing that certain endophytes may form preferential association with certain host plants. Several investigations indicted that even in unsterile soils plants do respond to inoculation with efficient strains of arbuscular mycorrhizae. Numerous experiments have been conducted in different parts of the world confirming this growth improvement. The increased growth of mycorrhizal plants is favoured in soils with low to moderate fertility. More specifically, soils favouring mycorrhizal growth stimulation usually have one or more essential nutrients, especially phosphorus, in limiting concentrations.

The mechanism of improved plant growth caused by mycorrhizal inoculation has been investigated by many workers. Greater soil exploration by mycorrhizal roots as means of increasing phosphate uptake is well established. They also improved the uptake other diffusion-limited elements like Zn, Cu, etc. The other beneficial effects are their role in the biological control of root pathogens, biological nitrogen fixation, hormone production and greater ability to withstand water stress (Bagyaraj, 1984).

The study entitled “sustainability of small farms in coastal ecosystem” was conceived out of consideration of continuous degradation of natural resources- base consisting of soil, water, forest, maintain and animal wealth of the state. With broad objective of investigation into the status of sustainability of agriculture in the state, the specific analysis like socio-economic and farming related situations, perception about sustainability of agriculture in terms of ecological soundness, economic viability, social accessibility, humaneness and adaptability, development of sustainable agriculture index, adoption of sustainable measures, extension components and suggestions and strategy to maintain sustainability were taken into consideration. The organic farming and agri-business opportunities for sustainable agriculture were also studied.

The study was conducted in the state of Odisha covering the districts of Puri, Khurda, Ganjam and Balasore. Altogether four blocks each of one district and eight villages two from each block were selected for the purpose of the study. As much as 200 respondents who were within definition of small and marginal farmers were selected for interview. The respondents randomly so selected were personally interviewed by the author through an interview schedule developed on the basis of objectives stated earlier. The secured data were processed statistically to reveal the relevant findings as per the need of the study. From the relevant findings of the study the conclusions have been summarized below.

Multiple cropping includes both inter and sequential cropping systems and here the main objective is to utilize the available resources effectively in a given environment. Number of indices are available for assessing land use and the yield advantage of crop mixtures compared to pure stands. These indices not only reflect the difference in criteria used to appraise advantages often encompassing aspects of quality or values as well as yield, but also reflects the different reasons for which an assessment is made.

1. Rotational intensity (RI): Crops are grown in a recurring sequence on the same piece of land with sufficient diversity and intensity. Crop rotations to control erosion/ to improve or maintain soil fertility and to manage weeds, insects and disease. Lower values of rotational intensity indicate mono cropping and higher values of rotational intensity indicates more rotation.

Downy Mildew (Green Ear)

Sclerospora graminicola

Economic Importance

• Downy mildew is reported from temperate and tropical regions of the world.
• In India, the disease is a major stumbling block in the full exploitation of yield potential of hybrids.
• Several epidemics have been observed which resulted in substantial grain yield losses (upto 60 percent) in F₁ hybrids under South Indian conditions.
• Usually the losses in grain yield are directly proportional to disease incidence in the field.

Introduction

The hot arid zones in India are spread over nearly 31.7 million hectare area of which 41.5 per cent is arable and 19 per cent is cultural wasteland. These zones are perpetuated mainly in North –West and Southern part of the country. The major parts of the country under hot arid climatic conditions are Western Rajasthan (19.62 Million ha), North-western Gujarat (6.2 M. ha), South-western Punjab (1.45 M. ha), South-western Haryana (1.28 M. ha), Andhra Pradesh (2.16 M. ha), Karnataka (0.86 M. ha), and Maharashtra ( 0.13 M. ha). These areas/ zones are characterized by hostile agro-climate and fragile eco-system, an annual rainfall between 100 – 500 mm with a coefficient of variation (CV) varying from 40 – 70 per cent, low and erratic rainfall combined with extremes of temperature (450-500 cal/cm²/day); low relative humidity; high potential evapo-transpiration value ranging from 1600 mm in eastern part and 1800 mm in western part of the hot arid zones. Other important characteristics of the hot arid regions are hot winds with high velocity, poor soil condition, poor ground water with brackish and saline in reaction, poor vegetation, frequent occurrence of drought and frost, difficult to execute agro-techniques, difficulty in post harvest handling and marketing owning to limited and inefficient transportation and marketing facilities, etc (Yadav and Soni, 2008).

Abstract

Plants have been the source of food and medicine since time immemorial. Tribal people have been using several plants and their parts as source of alternative food that is conventionally not consumed by urban population. However recently, due to increasing population and reducing agriculture land, such alternative foods are gaining attention. Such alternative foods often also have medicinal value and are consumed by tribals for ameliorating certain disorders. Due to rising costs of modern medicine and associated side effects, general public perception is positive for alternative medicines and traditional therapies. Yams are an example of such alternative medicinal foods and are the focus of this chapter. Here we describe the ethnobotanical and nutraceutical potential of yams. We have discussed, in detail, some of the species that are consumed in various regions of India. During the compilation of this data, it was noticed that detailed molecular information is not available for most species, while for some species almost no molecular data exists. Further, many species have not been properly evaluated through modern natural product chemistry and pharmacological screening methods to validate the claims made in ethnobotanical surveys. These and other lacunas in knowledge pertaining to yams have also been pointed out towards the end of the chapter.

Chromatography is a physical method of separation in which components to be separated is distributed between two phases, one of which is stationary while other moves in a definite direction. By separating the sample into individual components, it is easier to identify (qualitative) and measure the amount (quantitative) of the various sample components. There are numerous chromatographic techniques and corresponding instruments.

Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC) is the most widely used analytical technique for estimation of volatile and thermo stable type of pesticides with speed, accuracy, reproducibility and sensitivity.

The hot water soluble method is the most common method to estimate available B content in soil

Reagents

1. Azomethine-H: Dissolve 0.45 g azomethine-H and 1.0 g L-ascorbic acid in about 100 ml de-ionized or redistilled water. If solution is not clear, it should be heated gently on water bath at about 30ºC till it dissolves. A fresh solution should be prepared every week and kept in a refrigerator.
2. Buffer solution: Dissolve 250 g ammonium acetate in 500 ml de-ionized or redistilled water. Adjust the pH to about 5.5 by slowly adding approximately 100 ml glacial acetic acid, with constant stirring.
3. EDTA reagent (0.025 M): Dissolve 9.3 g EDTA in de-ionized or redistilled water and makes the volume up to 1 litre.
4. Standard Boron solution: Dissolve 0.571 g boric acid (H₃BO₃) AR grade in a small volume of deionized water and make volume to 1000 ml to obtain a stock solution of 100 mg B/L.

Agricultural crops are being affected by a wide range of organisms such as insects, mites, fungi, bacteria etc. Another important and unseen enemy is known as plant parasitic nematodes. The study on nematodes is known as Nematology.

Nematology is an important branch of biological science, which deals with a complex, diverse group of round worms known as Nematodes that occur worldwide in essentially all environments. Nematodes are also known as eelworms in Europe, nemas in the United States and round worms by zoologists. Many species are important parasites of plants and animals, whereas others are beneficial to agriculture and the environment. Nematodes that are parasites of man and animals are called helminths and the study is known as Helminthology. The name nematode was derived from Greek words nema (thread) and oides (resembling). This book focuses primarily on plant parasitic nematodes, their morphology, anatomy, nematological techniques, taxonomy, classification based on their feeding habits, symptom of damage to crops, interaction with other microorganisms, biology of important nematodes viz., Meloidogyne, Heterodera, Rotylenchulus, Tylenchulus and Radopholus and nematode pests of important crops and their management.

Annual crop losses due to these obligate parasites have been estimated to be about $78 billion worldwide and $8 billion for U.S. growers. The estimated annual crop loss in Tamil Nadu is around Rs. 200 crores.

The soil in a hectare of agroecosystem typically contains billions of plant parasitic as well as beneficial nematodes. The damage to plants caused by nematodes is often overlooked because the associated symptoms, including slow growth, stunting and yellowing can also be attributed to nutritional and water related disorders.

Terrestrial or epiphytic members of the family Bromeliaceae that are grown in gardens for their unusually coloured and patterned leaves or showy inflorescences and fruits are referred to as ornamental ‘Bromeliads’. Being low growing, they are ideally displayed in containers or as epiphytes. They are sun loving, suckering in habit and have xerophytic adaptations. The leaves are tough and fibrous often with spiny margins and sheathing leaf bases that hold water. A grayish-white waxy or powdery coating often covers the lamina. Certain bromeliads have a water collecting depression at the center. Inflorescences are sunken, erect or reclining, with condensed or long and much branched stalks carrying colourful bracts and usually, less showy flowers. In many, the terminal leaves become brightly coloured at flowering. These and the floral bracts remain showy even after the flowers are shed.

Ornamental bromeliads popularly grown in gardens include the following:

Aechmea blanchetiana

Copper leaf bromeliad

Plants have strap like leaves that develop streaks of coppery red colour on the upper surface in bright sunlight.

Aechmea burle-marxii

Burle-Marx bromeliad

1. Botanical name : Garcinia indica Chiocey

2. Family : Clusiaceae

3. Common Name : Kokum, Indian butter tree

4. Name in Indian languages

Kokum (Hindi), Bheranda, Bhiranda, Kokamba, Kokambi, Ratamba, Ratambi, Tambada Amba (Marathi), murgal, Murgal-mara(Tamil), Kaattampi, Kokkam(Malayalam), Murgina, Punarpuli, Devana huli (Kannada), Tintali (Oriya), Kokam(Gujarati), Bhirind, Kokam (Konkani), Vrikshamla, (Sanskrit).

Classification is system of placing an individual or a member in various groups or to categories them according to particular plan or sequence which is in conformity with the nomenclature. From time-to-time for purposes of convenience plants or fruits have been classified in various ways that makes possible to refer them to a large number of kinds under a group name without enumerating or specifying individually. The basis of these groupings varies according to the features of fruits or growth of the fruit plants that have been under classification at the time.

Knowledge of classification of horticultural plants is very useful to the horticulturists because it serves: (1) to identity and name them, (2) to afford at least some idea of the closeness of their relationship i.e. line of descent to other kinds, (3) to suggest with what other kind they possibly may or may not be interbred or crossed, (4) to suggest the kinds with which they possibly may or may not be inter-grafted, and (5) often to suggest certain soil and the cultural requirements, climatic adaptations etc. However, the classification of fruit trees or fruits and vegetables on the basis of consumer’s rating also gained attention in recent years. The consumers’ rating is mainly based on the size, shape, nutritive value and marketability of them. Each of these classifications is quite different from the other classification or groupings.

Basically, the fruit trees, as suggested by many authors, have been classified on the basis of their botany comprising of taxonomic ancestry, morphologic features, physiological functions, adaptability etc. or on the basis of agricultural and horticultural requirements. But the consumers’ rating has not been properly covered in the earlier classification. Generally based on botanical relationship the plants are classified as under.

3.1.1. Introduction

Clutch is a device which is used to connect and disconnect the tractor engine from the transmission gears and drive wheels. It is fitted in between the engine and gear box. The clutch transmits power by means of friction between driving members and the driven members.

Karonda (Carissa carandas Linn.) is also known as ‘Christ Thorn Tree’ and an important fruit plant of semi-arid and arid regions. It is an evergreen, hardy, spiny bush which is use as live fencing surrounding the orchards or filed. One or two plant was planted in backyards at rural place. It is also grown in wasteland, problematic soil, unproductive land and low moisture conditions. It can be also grown as ornamental purpose due to pink reddish fruits and evergreen nature. Plant produce sufficient amount of fruits and fruits are sour and astringent in taste. Fruits havenutritive value like rich source of iron, fair amount of vit. C and several medicinal values.

Loquat (Eriobotrya japonica) is a subtropical evergreen fruit tree belongs to family Rosaceae and subfamily Pomoideae (Lindley, 1982). It flowers in early winter and fruits ripen in mid march and may where there is scarcity of fruits. It is native to southeast China and has been cultivated in China for over 2000 years and many species occur there in wild state (Lin et al. 1999). Loquat is introduced in India under the name of Japanese medlar or Java plum. In India, it is commercially cultivated in Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and hills of southern states. Among different states Uttar Pradesh occupies the first position under loquat production.

Loquat is delicious fruit known for their mild, subacid and sweet taste. It contains 60 to 70 per cent pulp depending upon the cultivar and 15–20 per cent seed. In addition to 88% water pulp is composed of 55% vitamins and 0.5% minerals, 0.6% proteins, 9.6% carbohydrates and 1.0% fibre. Loquat fruit is also rich in phenolics and carotenoids.

The major challenges to any developing society are poverty and economic deprivation of its ruralpopulation.Eradication of poverty, the focus of all developmental efforts has remained a very complicated and serious concern among developing countries. Poverty is abysmal rooted covering several interlocked aspects such as lack of asset, under employment, uncertain and relatively unproductive employment, low remuneration, economic vulnerability, illiteracy, social disadvantage etc.

The rural areas were found to be more prone to poverty, even if it exists in urban areas also. The rural poor are perpetuating poverty and are the victims of the “vicious cycle of poverty”. Fishing communities in the coastal belts all over the world are also not an exception to this. Poverty in fishing communities is very common and is characterized by high population density, poor living conditions, lack of proper education and poor access to education and health care. Due to poor attention paid by the state, the infrastructure support like roads, electricity, good drinking water, markets etc also are be poor. Though efforts for reducing fishing pressure is taken by Government, scope for alternative employment opportunities are less. Thus those sector that are in engaged inthe world’s most dangerous occupations, are considered on par with SC/ST communities as far as India is concerned. The loss of a boat, gear or an active fisherman in the family can be tragic and lead to total financial deprivation of the family. Hence poverty and vulnerability in fishing communities is widely known but poorly addressed issue. As in rural farming sector, dependence of fishing communities on private moneylenders continues in many areas, especially for meeting emergent requirements. For various reasons, credit to these sections of the population has not been institutionalized.

The emergence of microfinance as an alternative financial delivery mechanism was a response to the failure of past efforts by government and international agencies effectively to provide financial services to the poor. But while considering micro finance programmes for fisheries sector, there should be special considerations that are unique to fishing communities and need special consideration. Instead of random payment of loans to target sectors and populations, efforts were taken for setting up and building local institutions that cater for the poor. This resulted in the materialization of microfinance institutions (MFIs) that serve the rural poor. MFIs initially started providing microcredit but have now extended their services to savings, insurance etc.

Field Crops: Refers to the crops grown on a vast scale. They are classified in the following ways

1. According to the place of origin

2. Botanical classification

3. Commercial classification

4. Economic classification

5. Seasonal classification

6. Classification according to ontogeny

7. Agronomic classification

8. Classification based on leaf morphology

9. Classification based on serving special purpose

Jasmonic acid: Jasmonic acid is derived from the fatty acid, linolenic acid. It is a member of the jasmonate class of plant hormones. It is biosynthesized from linolenic acid by the octadecanoid pathway. The major function of JA and its various metabolites is regulating plant responses to abiotic and biotic stresses as a well as plant growth and development processes.

Cohn (1875) first observed and described a branching filamentous microorganism in the ‘concretions’ (coagulated mass) taken from a lacrimal canal, later identified as Actinomyces israelii. Bollinger first reported the yellow granules in jaw tissues of the cattle in 1877 and established the significance of the bacteria as the etiological agent. In 1878, Israel described the first human case. In 1879, Hartz observed the microscopic appearance of granules of Actinomyces and suggested the name Actinomyces bovis. Mosselman & Lihnaux (1890) and Wolf & Israel (1891) first isolated the bacteria in artificial laboratory media from lumpy jaw cases of cattle and human actinomycosis, respectively.

Developments in recombinant DNA technology have made it possible to transfer gene from any source across species barrier. In fact, transfer and expression of foreign genes in plant cells is now a routine procedure. Of the several methods tried so far, the system based on Ti plasmid of Aprobacterium tumefaciens appears to be most successful for transformation of plant cells.